Guide For Becoming an M.D. Everything you need to Know + More

Welcome To my Guide For People who are interested in the M.D Field



This guide is meant to get people ready for the rigorousness of the Medical Field. Here you will find classes that must be take to get you from here to there, as well as medical tips and tips from your truly. You will also find in depth explanations of things that you must complete as for tips for studying and exams that you will have to look forward to. If you come across anything that you do not understand please feel free to ask.
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Color Code:


Main Topic of Discusion
Sub Topic
Need To Know
Definitions
Exams
Degree
Tips
Words from Myself




Bacic Table of Content:

Stages:
Pre-medical Medical school Clerkship Sub-internship Internship Residency Fellowship Board certification Licensure Continuing medical education



Pathways



Medicine (MD) Osteopathic Medicine (DO) International medical graduate
Degrees
Doctor of Medicine Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine MD/PhD Comparison
Regulatory bodies



Association of American Medical Colleges American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine National Resident Matching Program National Matching Service Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education Liaison Committee on Medical Education Commission on Osteopathic College Accreditation Accreditation Council for Continuing Medical Education American Osteopathic Association American Medical Association
Lists
Medical schools Specialty colleges







Pre-Mecdical:
is an educational track that undergraduate students in the United States pursue prior to becoming medical students. It involves activities that prepare a student for medical school, such as pre-med coursework, volunteer activities, clinical experience, research, and the application process.

Major




At most colleges and universities, students do not have the option of pre-medical major. A student on a pre-med track is permitted to choose any undergraduate major in any field of study, so long as certain required courses are completed. Such courses are generally focused in the scientific fields of biology, chemistry, organic chemistry, and physics, which are necessary for an individual to be prepared for the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT) and satisfy most medical school prerequisites. It is for this reason students on a pre-med track generally undertake a major associated with one of those fields; however, an increasing number of students with a background in humanities have been applying in recent years, a situation applauded by medical schools.For example, Mount Sinai School of Medicine has created a program specifically for non-science majors. The Humanities and Medicine Program grants admission to undergraduates majoring in the humanities or social sciences without requiring the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT) or science coursework.


Pre-med timeline




Typical pre-med students will structure their coursework in their first year in university to accommodate the required courses. After a semester, many pursue extracurricular activities that demonstrate a commitment to medicine. Once junior year arrives, students register for and take the MCAT, the required standardized exam that medical schools use to identify qualified candidates. Once the test is taken, students apply to various schools using the automated AMCAS system, AACOMAS system, or in some cases, the school's own application system. AMCAS primary applications are verified by AMCAS staff, a process that often takes four to six weeks. The application process consists of a review of academic records, MCAT scores, activities, work experience, and a personal statement. Applicants can expect to hear from schools within a few months, at which point they may receive "secondary applications".Different schools have different policies on sending secondary applications to students; many send secondary applications to all students, others screen applications prior to inviting an applicant to submit a secondary application. These applications are generated by each individual school. They generally contain essay questions that the applicant must answer to demonstrate that the applicant possesses qualities that the schools deem necessary to be a good medical student and physician.Qualified applicants can next expect to receive invitations to interview at schools. Upon completion of an interview and receipt of any additional application materials, the application is considered to be complete, and the student then waits for the school's decision to either accept or reject the student.

Increasingly, more non-traditional applicants are pursuing admittance to medical school through a "post-baccalaureate" pre-medical program.[citation needed] These programs may be formal, such as the programs offered through Columbia, Johns Hopkins, Mayo Clinic with Barrett, The Honors College, Bryn Mawr, Goucher and Scripps, or Baylor University where i attend now, such as the program offered at Harvard, but often consist of a student informally enrolling in a college to complete science coursework required for admission to medical school prior to sitting for the MCAT. The AAMC maintains a list of all formal and semi-formal post-baccalaureate pre-medical programs in the United States.




Medical school in the United States


is a four year graduate institution with the purpose of educating physicians in the field of medicine. It provides a major part of the medical education in the United States. Graduates receive either an M.D. or a D.O. degree.
Admissions


In general, admission into a US medical school is considered highly competitive, and typically requires completion of a four-year bachelor's degree or at least 90 credit hours from an accredited college or university. Many applicants obtain further education before medical school in the form of Master's degrees, or other non science related degrees. Admissions criteria may include overall performance in the undergraduate years and performance in a group of courses specifically required by U.S. medical schools (pre-health sciences), the score on the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT), application essays, letters of recommendation (most schools require either one letter from the undergraduate institution's premedical advising committee or a combination of letters from at least one science faculty and one non-science faculty), and interviews.

Beyond objective admissions criteria, many programs look for candidates who have had unique experiences in community service, volunteer-work, international studies, research, or other advanced degrees. Experiences can include activities such as shadowing a physician, an activity that involves inactively participating in the daily functions of a physician. This includes, but is not limited to, being present for patient examinations and watching surgical procedures. Physician shadowing allows medical school applicants the ability to become familiar with professional medical etiquette, to broaden the candidate's clinical exposure, and to display the applicant's enthusiasm for medicine.

The application essay is the primary opportunity for the candidate to describe his/her reasons for entering a medical career. The essay requirements are usually open-ended to allow creativity and flexibility for the candidate to draw upon his/her personal experiences/challenges to make him/her stand out amongst other applicants. If granted, an interview serves as an additional way to express these subjective strengths that a candidate may possess.
Since 2005, the Association of Medical Colleges has recommended that all medical schools conduct background checks on applicants in order to prevent individuals with convictions for serious crimes from being matriculated.
Most commonly, the bachelor degree is in one of the biological sciences, but not always; in 2005, nearly 40% of medical school matriculates had received bachelor's degrees in fields other than biology or specialized health sciences. All medical school applicants must, however, complete year-length undergraduate courses with labs in biology, general chemistry, organic chemistry, and physics; some medical schools have additional requirements such as biochemistry, calculus, genetics, psychology and English. Many of these courses have prerequisites, so there are other "hidden" course requirements (basic science courses) that are often taken first.
A student with a bachelor's degree who has not taken the pre-medical coursework may complete a postbaccalaureate (postbacc) program. Such programs allow rapid fulfillment of prerequisite course work as well as grade point average improvement. Some postbacc programs are specifically linked to individual medical schools to allow matriculation without a gap year, while most require 1–2 years to complete.

Several universities across the U.S. admit college students to their medical schools during college; students attend a single six-year to eight-year integrated program consisting of two to four years of an undergraduate curriculum and four years of medical school curriculum, culminating in both a bachelor's and M.D. degree or a bachelor's and D.O. degree. Some of these programs admit high school students to college and medical school.

While not necessary for admission, several private organizations have capitalized on this complex and involved process by offering services ranging from single-component preparation (MCAT, essay, etc.) to entire application review/consultation. Baylor and University of NC are 2 of them.

In 2011, the average MCAT and GPA for students entering U.S.-based M.D. programs were 31.1 and 3.67,[5] respectively, and 26.51 and 3.50 for D.O. matriculants, although the gap has been getting smaller every year.[6] In 2010, 42,742 people applied to medical schools in the United States through the American Medical College Application Service. Of these 42,742 students, 18,665 of them matriculated into a medical school for a success rate of 44%.[7] This figure does not account for the attrition rate of pre-med students in various stages of the pre-application process (those who ultimately do not decide to apply due to weeding out by low GPA, low MCAT, lack of clinical and research experience, and numerous other factors).
[edit]Curriculum



Further information: Comparison of MD and DO in the United States
Once admitted to medical school, it generally takes four years to complete a Doctor of Medicine (M.D.), or Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.) degree program. However, at least two schools, Texas Tech University and the Lake Erie College of Osteopathic Medicine[8] are now offering a three year accelerated program for those students going into primary care. The course of study is divided into two roughly equal components: pre-clinical and clinical.

I am Currently in this stage

Preclinical study comprises the first one to two years and consists of classroom and laboratory instruction in core subjects such as anatomy, biochemistry, physiology, pharmacology, histology, embryology, microbiology, pathology, pathophysiology, and neurosciences. Once students successfully complete preclinical training, they generally take step one of the medical licensing boards, the USMLE, or the COMLEX.

The clinical component usually occupies the final two to three years of medical school and takes place almost exclusively on the wards of a teaching hospital or, occasionally, with community-based physicians. The students observe and take part in the care of patients under the supervision of resident and attending physicians. Rotations (also known as clerkships) are required in internal medicine, surgery, pediatrics, family medicine, obstetrics/gynecology, neurology, and psychiatry. Beyond these, a variable number of specialty electives are required. Additionally, students are generally required to take a sub-internship rotation where they will perform duties at the intern level. During the fourth year, most medical students take Step 2 of the medical licensing boards (USMLE Clinical Knowledge & Clinical Skills [for M.D.], or COMLEX Cognitive Evaluation & Performance Evaluation [for D.O.]).
Many medical schools also offer joint degree programs in which some medical students may simultaneously enroll in master's or doctoral-level programs in related fields such as a Masters in Business Administration, Masters in Healthcare Administration, Masters in Public Health, JD, Master of Arts in Law and Diplomacy, and Masters in Health Communication. Some schools such as the Wayne State University School of Medicine and the Medical College of South Carolina both offer an integrated radiology curriculum during their respective MD Programs led by investigators of the Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity study.[10]

Upon completion of medical school, the student gains the title of doctor and the degree of M.D. or D.O., but cannot practice independently until completing at least an internship and also Step 3 of the USMLE (for M.D.) or COMLEX (for D.O.). Doctors of Medicine and Doctors of Osteopathic Medicine have an equal scope of practice in the United States, with some osteopathic physicians supplementing their practice with principles of osteopathic medicine.

Grading



Medical schools use a variety of different grading methods. Even within one school, the grading of the basic sciences and clinical clerkships may vary. Most medical schools use the pass/fail schema, rather than letter grades; however the range of grading intervals varies. The following are examples of grades used with different intervals:[11]
2 Intervals = Pass/Fail
3 Intervals = Honors/Pass/Fail
4 Intervals = Honors/High Pass/Pass/Fail (or ABCF)
5 Intervals = Honors/High Pass/Pass/Low Pass/Fail (or ABCDF)
In addition, a Medical School Performance Evaluation, also called Dean's letter, more specifically describes the performance of a student during medical school.[12]

Accreditation




All medical schools within the United States must be accredited by one of two organizations. The Liaison Committee on Medical Education (LCME), jointly administered by the Association of American Medical Colleges and the American Medical Association, accredits M.D. schools, while the Commission on Osteopathic College Accreditation of the American Osteopathic Association accredits osteopathic (D.O.) schools. There are presently 141 M.D. programs and 29 D.O. programs in the United States.
Accreditation is required for a school's students to receive federal loans. Additionally, schools must be accredited to receive federal funding for medical education. The M.D. and D.O. are the only medical degrees offered in the United States which are listed in the WHO/IMED list of medical schools.
Indebtedness of U.S. Medical Graduates



Unlike many other countries, U.S. medical students finance their education with personal debt. In 1992, the average debt of a medical doctor after residency, for those graduating with debt, was $25,000. For the Class of 2009, the average debt of a medical student is $157,990, with 25.1% of students having debt in excess of $200,000 "somewhat accurate from what i looked up (prior to residency). For the past decade, tuition prices have increased 5-6% each year- it is not clear what has caused these increases.

Medical schools do not have accounting transparency, so it is difficult to pin-point the root cause of tuition increases. Medical education is still based on the 2 + 2 model posited by the 100 year old Flexner report.
A current economic theory suggests that increasing borrowing limits have been the cause of the increased tuition. As medical students are allowed to borrow more, medical schools raise tuition prices to maximally increase revenue. Studies show that schools raise prices 97 cents for each one dollar increase in borrowing capacity.

There is no consensus on whether the level of debt carried by medical students has a strong effect on their choice of medical specialty. Dr. Herbert Pardes and others have suggested that medical school debt has been a direct cause of the US primary care shortage.Some research suggests that for a sub-set of debt sensitive medical students, this is certainly the case. For most students, debt is but one consideration in choosing a residency. Whatever the cause may be, the 2008 Family Medicine Residency match filled only 44% of available slots with US graduates, down from the 1984 level of 98%.



Academic Health Centers



Medical schools reside inside complex multi-purpose institutions known as academic health centers. Academic health centers aim to educate medical students and residents, provide top quality patient care, and perform cutting-edge research. Since medical students are educated inside academic health centers, it is impossible to separate the finances from other operations inside the center. Funding for medical students—and higher graduate medical education—comes from several sources above and beyond personal debt financing.[22]

DGME (Direct Graduate Medical Education- 2.2 billion in 2002) financing payments under the auspices of Medicare/Medicaid. This funding was altered by the Consolidated Omnibus Budget Reconciliation Act of 1986. Each hospital receives payment based on how many Full Time Equivalent Residents are being trained.

IME (Indirect Medical Education - 6.2 billion in 2002) adjustment. This payment compensates teaching hospitals for their higher Medicare inpatient hospital operating costs due to a number of factors.
Managed care and insurance organizations reimburse at a higher rate for teaching hospitals, explicitly acknowledging the higher costs of the academic health center.

The vast majority of revenues come from third-party payers reimbursing for patient care, usually through the Faculty Service Plan.
Incentive programs such as the MSTP (Medical Scientist Training Program), NHSC (National Health Service Corps), Armed Services Health Profession Scholarship and now the Income Based Repayment Plan.
Many academic health centers in the U.S. are tied to undergraduate university systems while others solely focus on graduate medicine, training, research, and education.




Sub-Intern



or acting internship (AI) is a clinical rotation of a fourth-year medical student in the United States medical education system usually at a different hospital than the student's medical school affiliations. A student will generally select an elective "sub"-internship, where the student will perform the role of an intern or first year medical graduate, under the supervision of senior house staff and attending physicians. The rotation is generally pursued in the field appropriate to career interest. For example, a sub-I can be taken in Internal Medicine, Surgery, Pediatrics, or Obstetrics and Gynecology. In this way, the student can experience a glimpse of their future career without the burden of full responsibility. Additionally, many medical students select sub-internships at institutions where they wish to apply for residency; such rotations are "auditions" for the student to demonstrate his or her commitment to the outside program.



Internal medicine sub-I




At the turn of the 21st century ninety-eight percent of US medical schools offered an internal medicine sub-I to medical students. In general the following responsibilities are given to a sub-I student: accept and give sign-out of all patients on the team, assess assigned patients before morning rounds, write problem oriented notes daily on all patients, admit patients on call days, act as information liaison between the medical team and hospital staff, communicating plan of care to patient. Responsibilities that are generally limited or withheld include: writing orders or prescriptions, performing major procedures, obtaining consent from patients for procedures or surgeries.
A recent editorial highlighted the changing role of the subinternship (SI) in the medical school curriculum.1 It has been argued that the SI should be viewed as the culmination of a coordinated 4-year program of study in clinical care, with an aim to prepare fourth-year students for the demanding experience of internship. Ideally, the educational goals of the SI should complement and expand upon those outlined in the third-year clerkship and ought to uniquely emphasize the knowledge and skills needed to independently treat and manage acutely ill inpatients. To facilitate these goals, it has been recommended that SI programs place fourth-year students in a role that completely replaces the intern, albeit under the supervision of senior house staff. In particular, it has been recommended that subinterns should 1) have a dedicated coordinator of educational activities, 2) be provided with an explicit set of learning objectives, 3) have separate conferences which stress patient management issues,4) be able to write medical orders that are cosigned by a physician, and 5) participate in supervised cross-coverage.
Despite the valuable and distinctive experience of the SI, it has been neglected by medical educators and researchers as an area needing development and standardization. At an organizational level, the SI currently lacks the clearly defined curricular goals and rigorous evaluation methodologies found in the third-year clerkship.2–4 Nevertheless, it is unclear to what extent individual medical schools have addressed the unique educational needs of the SI. In an attempt to clarify the structure and requirements of internal medicine SI programs throughout the United States, a survey study was undertaken.




Intern:




A medical intern is a term used in the United States for a physician in training who has completed medical school. An intern has a medical degree, but does not have a full license to practice medicine unsupervised. In other countries medical education generally ends with a period of practical training similar to internship, but the way the overall program of academic and practical medical training is structured differs in each case, as does the terminology used (see medical education and medical school for further details).




Fellowship (medicine)




A fellowship is the period of medical training in the United States and Canada that a physician may undertake after completing a specialty training program (residency). During this time (usually more than one year), the physician is known as a fellow. Fellows are capable of acting as attending physician or consultant physician in the generalist field in which they were trained, such as internal medicine or pediatrics. After completing a fellowship in the relevant sub-specialty, the physician is permitted to practice without direct supervision by other physicians in that sub-specialty, such as cardiology or oncology




They Usually Take up one of these Specialties:

1. Orthopaedic
2. Traumatologist
3. Cardiology
4. Critical care medicine
5. Endocrinology
6. Gastroenterology
7. Geriatrics
8. Hematology
9. Hospice and Palliative Medicine
10. Immunology
11. Infectious disease
12. Nephrology
13. Oncology
14. Pulmonology
15. Rheumatology
16. Sleep medicine
17. Transplant hepatology

Board certification




Board certification is the process by which a physician (M.D. or D.O.), dentist (DDS or DMD), pharmacist (Pharm.D.) or podiatrist (DPM), in the United States demonstrates through either written, practical, and/or simulator based testing, a mastery of the basic knowledge and skills that define an area of medical specialization. The commonly used acronym BE/BC (board eligible/board certified) refers to a doctor who is certified or is eligible to be certified to practice medicine in a particular field.

The term board certified is also used in the nursing field, where a candidate with advanced mastery of a nursing specialty can also become eligible to be Board Certified.[1] Board certification is also used in the field of pharmacy, where a pharmacist can be recognized in specialized areas of advanced pharmacy practice after fulfilling eligibility requirements and passing a certification examination.[2] Doctoral level psychologists (Ph.D., or Psy.D.) may also be board certified by the American Board of Professional Psychology.




Defining a Medical Specialty wiki tip




The core body of knowledge that defines an area of medical specialization is referred to as the core competencies for that specialty. Core competencies are developed through detailed review of the medical literature combined with review by recognized experts from established medical specialties, experts within the new area of specialization and experts from outside the medical profession. This list of core knowledge and skills is then compiled into a draft core competency document.

Once the core competency document is drafted, the certifying organization and its associated professional academy, college or society review the document against the existing literature and again solicit expert opinion regarding the domains of competence and areas of competency contained in the document. The core competencies are next formatted using a psychometric taxonomy such as Bloom's Taxonomy based on the core competencies required by physicians practicing in the area of specialization as non-specialists and as specialists or sub-specialists. Development of the first core competency document takes five to ten years and is a prerequisite to creating the certification examination.



Examinations




Physicians seeking board certification in a given area of specialty must successfully complete and pass an examination process designed to test their mastery of the minimum knowledge and skills contained in the core competency document. Prior to taking the examination, a physician must graduate with a degree, either MD or DO, and meet all other prerequisites to certification as set out by the certifying agency or "board."
The examination itself may consist of one or more parts. Traditionally, an exhaustive written examination is required of all candidates for board certifications in any specialty. While written examinations are adequate measures of basic knowledge, they do not test the mastery of skills or the application of knowledge as well. Many specialties have over the decades attempted to evaluate skills through "practical" examinations using "model" patients (actors) or by observing the physician candidate in a clinical environment. The practical examination has been criticized for being subjective and irreproducible even in the hands of an experienced examiner. As a result, computerized animatronic human patient simulator based examinations are now being adopted. The traditional written examination is also rapidly being replaced by computer-based testing.


Certifying Agencies for Physicians




Board certification is overseen by different agencies and organizations throughout the world. In most cases, these organizations are not only specific to a particular type of physician training (MD vs. DO), but a specific country or group of countries. There are three agencies or organizations in the United States which collectively oversee the certification of M.D.s and D.O.s in the 26 recognized medical specialties. These organizations are the American Board of Medical Specialties (ABMS) and the American Medical Association; the American Osteopathic Association Bureau of Osteopathic Specialists (AOABOS) and the American Osteopathic Association; the American Board of Physician Specialties (ABPS) and the American Association of Physician Specialists. AOABOS and ABPS each have associated with associated national medical organization functions as an umbrella for its various specialty academies, colleges and societies (see table). The American Board of Medical Specialties represents the largest of these organizations, with over 750,000 US physicians having received certification from one or more of its 24 member Boards. The ABMS is not affiliated with any medical society. ABPS is recognized by most states, however, there are some states where physicians are not, by law, allowed to call themselves "board certified" if the specialty designation is from their boards.[3][4]


Certifying Board National Organization Physician Type
ABMS no-affiliation M.D. and D.O.


AOABOS American Osteopathic Association D.O. Only
ABPS AAPS M.D. and D.O.


All boards of certification now require that physicians demonstrate, by examination, continuing mastery of the core knowledge and skills for their chosen specialty. Recertification varies by specialty between every 7 and every 10 years. Which means your going to be doing a hell of alot of Triage so be ready for it.


Comparison of MD and DO in the United States



n the United States, there are two types of physicians that practice medicine. Most physicians hold the Doctor of Medicine degree (M.D.), while osteopathic physicians hold the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine degree (D.O.).[1] Other than teaching manual medicine, the medical training for an M.D. and D.O. is virtually indistinguishable. D.O. physicians complete conventional residencies in hospitals and training programs, are licensed in all states, and have rights and responsibilities, such as military service, that are identical to M.D. physicians and surgeons.[2]





Contents


1 Background
2 Demographics
3 Cultural differences
3.1 Self-characterization
3.2 Perceptions
3.3 Self-Identification
4 Medical education and training
4.1 Medical schools
4.1.1 Osteopathic manipulative medicine
4.1.2 Student aptitude indicators
4.2 Residency
4.2.1 Resident specialty choice
4.2.1.1 Primary care
4.3 Licensure
4.4 Continuing medical education
5 Professional advantages
6 References
7 External links


Background



See also: Osteopathic medicine in the United States
In 2005, Jordan Cohen, the president of the American Medical Association (AMA) stated:


After more than a century of often bitterly contentious relationships between the osteopathic and allopathic medical professions, we now find ourselves living at a time when osteopathic and allopathic graduates are both sought after by many of the same residency programs; are in most instances both licensed by the same licensing boards; are both privileged by many of the same hospitals; and are found in appreciable numbers on the faculties of each other's medical schools.[3]


The AMA's now current defintion of a physician is "an ndividual who has received a 'Doctor of Medicine' or a 'Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine' degree or an equivalent degree following successful completion of a prescribed course of study from a school of medicine or osteopathic medicine.


Demographics





First year medical school enrollment, 1975–2007.
MD
DO


The sex and racial distribution of DOs and MDs are similar.[5]Currently, there are significantly more MDs than DOs.[6] In the 2010-2011 application cycle, 5,627 students matriculated as first-year students into DO medical programs[7] and 19,230 students matriculated as first-year students into MD programs.[8]

A 2010 survey of students applying to both U.S. M.D. and D.O schools found that 35% were only admitted to a DO school, 11% were only admitted to an M.D. school, 26% were admitted to both, while the remaining 52% were not admitted to any schools.[9] Geographic location was the top reason students gave for choosing the school in which they enrolled.[9]
Of physicians practicing in the United States, 7% are osteopathic physicians (2010),[10] 26% are international medical graduates (2012),[11] while the remaining physicians are U.S. medical graduates (M.D.). Between 1980 and 2005, the annual number of new MDs remained stable at around 16,000. During the same period, the number of new DOs increased by more than 200% (from about 1,150 to about 2,800).[12] Graduates from DO medical programs are expected to increase to 3,300 by the year 2010 and as many as 4,000 by 2015.[13] The number of new MDs per 100,000 people fell from 7.5 to 5.6, while the number of new DOs per 100,000 rose from 0.4 to 0.8.[12]
The distribution of both M.D. and D.O. physicians in the United States is not uniform, as the number of physicians per capita varies. As of 2009, the states with the most M.D. physicians per capita were the District of Columbia, Massachusetts, Maryland, and New York.[14] The states with the lowest number of M.D. physicians per capita were Idaho, Oklahoma, Mississippi, Wyoming and Nevada.[14] Osteopathic physicians are more concentrated in the midwestern states than in other regions of the U.S. As of 2011, the states with the most osteopathic physicians per capita were Michigan, Maine, Oklahoma, Pennsylvania.[15] The states with the lowest number of D.O. physicians per capita were Louisiana, Alabama, Nebraska, and North Carolina.[15]


Cultural differences



Some authors describe less quantifiable distinctions between the two medical professions. Avery Hurt writes, "In actual practice, the variations between the two types of physicians are often so slight as to be unnoticeable to patients, and a day in the life of each can appear indistinguishable. But the differences are there, subtle but deep."[16] Several studies have investigated these differences. One study compared the patient interactions of DOs and MDs. The study found that "osteopathic physicians were more likely to use patient's first names and to discuss the social, family and emotional impact of illnesses." For example, "66% of DOs discussed a patient's emotional state compared with about one-third of MDs." The same study found that MD qualified "physicians scored higher in discussing literature or scientific basis of treatment."[17] Another study analyzed 341.4 million patient visits to general and family medicine specialists in the United States, including 64.9 million visits to DOs and 276.5 million visits to MDs. It found that there was no significant difference between DOs and MDs "with regard to time spent with patients and preventive medicine services."[18]


Self-characterization



A Harvard study found significant differences in the attitudes of DOs and MDs. The study found that 40.1% of MD students and physicians described themselves as "socioemotionally" oriented over "technoscientific" orientation. 63.8% of their DO counterparts self-identified as socioemotional. (p < .0001)[19]


Perceptions


One study of DOs attempted to investigate their perceptions of differences in philosophy and practice between themselves and their MD counterparts. 88% of the respondents had a self-identification as osteopathic physicians, but less than half felt their patients identified them as such. The study asked respondents to identify points of philosophical and practical difference between DOs and MDs; no more than 1/3 of respondents could agree on any single such point of difference.[20]



Further information: Principles of Osteopathic philosophy
Self-Identification



As the training of DOs and MDs becomes less distinct, some have expressed concern that their unique characteristics will be lost.[21] Others welcome the rapprochement and already consider modern medicine to be the type of medicine practiced by both "MD and DO type doctors."[22] One persistent difference is the respective acceptance of the terms "allopathic" and "osteopathic." DO medical organizations and medical schools all include the word osteopathic in their names, and such groups actively promote an "osteopathic approach" to medicine. While "osteopathy" was a term used by its founder AT Still to describe his new philosophy of medicine, "allopathic medicine" was originally a derogatory term coined by Samuel Hahnemann to contrast the conventional medicine of his day with his alternative system of homeopathic medicine.[23][24] Today, the term "allopathic physician" is used infrequently, usually in discussions relating to osteopathic medicine or alternative medicine. Some authors argue that the term should be dropped altogether, since its original meaning bears little relevance to the current practice of modern medicine[25] and conventional medicine has never endorsed any principle of allopathy.[26] Similarly, the use of the terms "osteopath" and "osteopathy" are now discouraged when describing osteopathic physicians that have earned the degree of Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine and the field of osteopathic medicine, respectively.[27]


Medical education and training





Medical schools


The Liaison Committee on Medical Education (LCME) accredits the 141 U.S.-medical schools[29][30] that award the M.D. degree, while the American Osteopathic Association (AOA) Commission on Osteopathic College Accreditation (COCA) accredits the 29 colleges of osteopathic medicine in 37 locations in the United States that award the D.O. degree.[31]
Michigan State University and the University of Medicine and Dentistry of New Jersey are the only universities that have both M.D. and D.O. accredited programs.[32] In 2009, Kansas City University proposed starting a dual MD/DO program in addition to the existing DO program,[33] and the University of North Texas, explored the possibility of starting independent M.D. program that would be offered alongside the DO program.[32] Both proposals were met with controversy. Proponents argued that adding an MD program would lead to more local residencies created, and improve the university&#8217;s ability to acquire research funding and state funding. Opponents argue that adding the MD programs could cause the osteopathic program to lose its focus on "holistic care," would result in more competition for the already limited number of existing residencies (if more were not opened), and would drain resources from the established osteopathic programs.

Overall, osteopathic medical schools have more modest research programs compared to M.D. schools, and fewer D.O. schools own a hospital.[34] Historically, osteopathic medical schools had associations with osteopathic hospitals, which were usually small, rural, community based hospitals.[35] However, in 1990s and 2000s, economic and regulatory pressures caused many small hospitals, including most osteopathic hospitals, to either close or join larger hospital networks.[35][36]

Osteopathic medical schools tend to have a stronger focus on primary care medicine than M.D. schools.[34] D.O. schools have developed various strategies to encourage their graduates to pursue primary care, such as offering accelerated 3-year programs for primary care, focusing clinical education in community health centers, and selecting rural or under-served urban areas for the location of new campuses.[34]

See also: List of medical schools in the United States and Medical school in the United States



Osteopathic manipulative medicine


Many authors note the most obvious difference between the curricula of D.O. and M.D. schools is osteopathic manipulative medicine (OMM), a type of manual therapy taught only at D.O. schools. As of 2006, the average osteopathic student spent almost 8 weeks on clerkships for OMM during their third and fourth years.[37] The National Institute of Health's National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine states[38] that overall, studies have shown that spinal manipulation can provide mild-to-moderate relief from low-back pain and appears to be as effective as conventional medical treatments. In 2007 guidelines, the American College of Physicians and the American Pain Society include spinal manipulation as one of several treatment options for practitioners to consider using when pain does not improve with self-care.[39][40] Spinal manipulation is generally a safe treatment for low-back pain. Serious complications are very rare.[41] A 2001 survey of DOs found that more than 50% of the respondents used OMT (osteopathic manipulative treatment) on less than 5% of their patients. The survey was the latest indication that DOs have become more like M.D. qualified physicians in all respects: fewer perform OMT, more prescribe drugs, and many perform surgery as a first option.[42] One area which has been implicated, but not been formally studied regarding the decline in OMT usage among DOs in practice, is the role of reimbursement changes.[43] Only in the last several years could a D.O. charge for both an office visit (Evaluation & Management services) and use a procedure (CPT) code when performing OMT; previously, it was bundled.[44]

Further information: Status of OMM within the Osteopathic profession
Student aptitude indicators


Some authors note the differences in average GPA and MCAT scores of those who matriculate at D.O. schools versus those who matriculate at M.D. schools within the United States. In 2011, the average MCAT and GPA for students entering U.S.-based M.D. programs were 31.1 and 3.67,[45] respectively, and 26.51 and 3.50 for D.O. matriculants,[46] although the gap has been getting smaller every year.[47] Up to one third of students matriculating at a D.O. medical school were not accepted by M.D. programs;[48] however, DO medical schools are more likely to accept non-traditional students,[49][50] who are older, coming to medicine as a second career, non-science majors, etc. D.O. medical students are required to take the Comprehensive Osteopathic Medical Licensure Examination (COMLEX-USA) that is sponsored by the National Board of Osteopathic Medical Examiners (NBOME). This exam is a prerequisite for D.O.-associated residency programs, which are available in almost every specialty of medicine and surgery. D.O. medical students may also choose to sit for the USMLE[51] if they wish to take an M.D. residency; however, if they have taken COMLEX, it may or may not be needed, depending on the individual institution&#8217;s program requirements.[52][53][54][55] First-time USMLE pass rates for D.O. and M.D. students in 2011 are as follows: Step 1: 89% and 94%, Step 2 CK: 93% and 97%, and Step 2 CS: 93% and 97% respectively; Step 3: 94% and 100%--but this number may be misleading, as 18 D.O. students compared to 18,314 M.D. students, were evaluated for Step 3.[56]


Residency

As of June 2015, all post-graduate training for both DOs and MDs will be accredited by the ACGME.




Applicants in the 2007 Main NRMP Residency Match[57]
Graduates of both D.O. and M.D. certified medical schools are eligible to apply to residency programs through the National Resident Matching Program (NRMP). In 2003, 99% of new U.S. MDs and 43% of new U.S. DOs went on to train in ACGME-accredited residency programs.[21]

The American Osteopathic Association accredits D.O. residency programs. There have been calls to end the remaining barriers between the two types of programs.[58][59][60] Since 1985, a single residency training program can be dual-accredited by both the ACGME and the AOA.[21][61][62]
In 2001, the AOA adopted a provision making it possible for a D.O. resident in any M.D. program to apply for osteopathic approval of their training.[63] The topic of dual-accreditation is controversial. Opponents claim that by merging D.O. students into the "M.D. world", the unique quality of osteopathic philosophy will be lost.[21] Supporters claim the programs are popular because of the higher prestige and higher resident reimbursement salaries associated with M.D. programs.[64] In 2010-2011, approximately 41% of U.S. osteopathic medical students indicated that they intend to pursue an AOA or AOA/ACGME dually-accredited residency programs while 39% indicated that they intend to pursue an ACGME accredited residency program.[65] In 2010-2011, approximately 12% of U.S. osteopathic medical students indicated that they intend to pursue an AOA/ACGME dually-accredited residency program, while 29% planned to pursue an AOA residency and 39% planned to pursue an ACGME-accredited residency program.[65] The number of dually accredited programs increased from 11% of all AOA approved residencies in 2006 to 14% in 2008, and then to 22% in 2010.[66] The most common reason (74%) given by D.O. medical students choosing an ACGME residency or AOA/ACGME dually-accredited program was a more suitable geographic location.[65] M.D. physicians are generally not permitted to train in DO (AOA-accredited) residencies, though this has become a subject of debate within the D.O. profession. The American Osteopathic Association has agreed to study the issue of permitting M.D. physicians to train in D.O. (AOA-accredited) residencies.[67][68]


Resident specialty choice


Primary care



There are notable differences in the specialty choices of DOs and MDs. One study attributes this to a difference in the 'cultures' of their medical schools, concluding that the "practices and educational structures in osteopathic medical schools [D.O.] better support the production of primary care physician."[69] According to one survey, 54.6% of deans of M.D. medical schools reported that training future primary care physicians was more important to their institutions than training future specialist physicians, compared with 100% of D.O. medical school deans. (F = 893.11,95, p < .0001).[69]


Licensure
Steps to licensure
M.D. D.O.


Medical School Application service AMCAS/TMDSAS AACOMAS/TMDSAS
Years of medical school 4 4
Medical Licensing Exam (MLE) Step 1 USMLE required
USMLE optional (~50%)
COMLEX required
MLE, Step 2 USMLE required varies by school; may require COMLEX, or choice of either USMLE or COMLEX
residency M.D. (ACGME) one must be selected:
M.D. (ACGME)
D.O. (AOA)
combined M.D./D.O.
AOA approval of an ACGME program[63]
Board Certification Medical specialty boards Either M.D. or D.O. medical specialty boards
[edit]Continuing medical education
Main article: Continuing medical education
To maintain a license to practice medicine, U.S. physicians are required to complete additional training every few years, so called continuing medical education (CME). There are subtle differences in the CME requirements for M.D. and D.O. qualified physicians, and in how these CME credits are approved. The requirements for maintaining a physician license for M.D. or D.O. qualified physicians are almost identical in most states, though there are small differences. For example, in the case of Pennsylvania, M.D. licenses begin on December 31, whereas D.O. ones begin on October 31.[7]


Professional advantages



M.D. qualification training is the most widely available in the U.S.; however, the D.O. medical profession has rapidly expanded, with more than 1 in 5 medical students now entering a D.O. medical school.[71] Both DOs and MDs have the option to train and practice in any of the medical specialties and sub-specialties. One exception is the Neuromusculoskeletal Medicine specialty which is only available to D.O.'s who have completed a one year traditional internship year.[72]

Both degrees are recognized internationally as a medical degree. Accredited D.O. and M.D. medical schools are both included in the World Health Organization&#8217;s World Directory of Medical Schools.[73] However, when practicing overseas, an M.D. degree may be easier to negotiate with than a D.O. degree. DOs are more likely than their U.S. M.D. counterparts to have to explain or defend their training, particularly in areas that have non-physician osteopaths. This is rapidly changing as over 55 countries now recognize the D.O. medical degree, and the AOA's Bureau on Osteopathic Medical Education & Affairs is actively working with members to increase that number.[74]
As of July 2015, the AOA, AACOM, and the ACGME will create a single, unified accreditation system for graduate medical education programs in the United States.[75][76] This will ensure that all physicians trained in the U.S. will have the same graduate medical education accreditation - ACGME. This will also provide DO physicians with the equivalent overseas recognition as their MD counterparts, as the ACGME accreditation is more widely known outside of the United States.



Continuing medical education




Continuing medical education (CME) refers to a specific form of continuing education (CE) that helps those in the medical field maintain competence and learn about new and developing areas of their field. These activities may take place as live events, written publications, online programs, audio, video, or other electronic media. Content for these programs is developed, reviewed, and delivered by faculty who are experts in their individual clinical areas. Similar to the process used in academic journals, any potentially conflicting financial relationships for faculty members must be both disclosed and resolved in a meaningful way.[1] However, critics complain that drug and device manufacturers often use their financial sponsorship to bias CMEs towards marketing their own products.[2]



Contents

1 Historical context
2 CME requirements
3 Non-CME (promotional education) programs
4 Production of CME courses
5 Criticism of industry sponsorship
6 References


Historical context



Continuing medical education is not a new concept. From essentially the beginning of institutionalized medical instruction (medical instruction affiliated with medical colleges and teaching hospitals), health practitioners continued their learning by meeting with their peers.[3] Grand rounds, case discussions, and meetings to discuss published medical papers constituted the continuing learning experience. In the 1950s through to the 1980s, CME was increasingly funded by the pharmaceutical industry. Concerns regarding informational bias (both intentional and unintentional) led to increasing scrutiny of the CME funding sources. This led to the establishment of certifying agencies such as the Society for Academic Continuing Medical Education which is an umbrella organization representing medical associations and bodies of academic medicine from the United States, Canada, Great Britain and Europe. The pharmaceutical industry has also developed guidelines regarding drug detailing and industry sponsorship of CME, such as the Pharmaceutical Advertising Advisory Board (PAAB) and Canada's Research-Based Pharmaceutical Companies (Rx&D).


CME requirements




In the United States, many states require CME for medical professionals to maintain their licenses. For example, Arizona requires an average of 40 hours of CME every two years.[4] For a complete list of requirements by state, see State Medical Licensure Requirements and Statistics, 2006. Within the United States, CME for physicians is regulated by the Accreditation Council for Continuing Medical Education (ACCME) and the American Osteopathic Association (AOA).

In Canada, certification is provided by the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada (RCPSC) and the College of Family Physicians Canada (CFPC). The RCPSC is responsible for the development and implementation of all certifying examinations in each specialty other than Family Medicine. Specialist physicians who join the Royal College as Fellows maintain their knowledge, skills, competence and performance through participating in the Maintenance of Certification Program. For each five year cycle, fellows of the college are required to document 400 credits, with a minimum of 40 credits obtained in each year of the cycle. Credits are earned at one to two credits per hour, based on the type of learning activity. The CFPC requires 250 credit-hours over a five year cycle. Fifty credits must be obtained for each year of the cycle. To earn and maintain fellowship within the college, an additional 24 credit-hours of higher level learning are also required over each learning cycle. Similarly, each province and territory requires documentation of ongoing CME for licensure.[5]


Non-CME (promotional education) programs




Non-CME activities, also referred to as Promotional Medical Education, encompass a variety of industry sponsored educational programs for medical professionals. Several things serve to distinguish these programs, which are typically aimed at promotion of a given product or therapy, from accredited CME programs:[citation needed]
Lack of accreditation
Direct industry sponsorship
Specific product or therapy focus
Strict regulation against off-label promotion


Production of CME courses



Continuing medical education activities are developed and delivered by a variety of organizations, including:
Professional associations
Medical education agencies
Hospitals
Educational institutions, including universities, medical and nursing schools
Private Institutions/
Home study nursing continuing education providers
Activities may be classified as Formal Learning Activities, including live planned programs, enduring materials (such as DVD- and web-based content), Process Improvement CME (or PI-CME, as defined by the American Medical Association), or Informal Learning Activities such as Internet-Point of Care (POC) research and decision making, or journal clubs whose members evaluate published research for mutual awareness and benefit.
In 2008, professional certification for CME planners was established by the National Commission for Certification of CME Professionals, which is earned by standardized exam, and confers the Certified CME Professional (CCMEP) certificate. NC-CME maintains a registry [6] of these certified professionals. As of June 2011, the Registry included 320 professionals.


Criticism of industry sponsorship



Critics, such as Morris and Taitsman,[7] would prefer that the medical profession eliminate commercial support for CME.
Despite ACCME requirements that program content be free of commercial interests, "CME providers can easily pitch topics designed to attract commercial sponsorship," and sponsors can award grants to programs that support their marketing strategies.[7] The Institute of Medicine has said that CME has become too reliant on industry funding that "tends to promote a narrow focus on the products and to neglect provisions of a broader education on alternative strategies," such as communication and prevention.[8]


For example, gabapentin (Neurontin), was approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for adjunctive therapy in epilepsy, but Warner-Lambert sponsored CME activities that encouraged its use for off-label indications. The U.S. Department of Justice brought civil and criminal charges against Warner-Lambert, which Warner-Lambert settled for $430 million, alleging that Warner-Lambert paid kickbacks to doctors in the form of lavish trips to attend presentations about off-label uses.[9] More recently, AstraZeneca PLC has been fined $520 million in the United States for off-label promotion to doctors for their anti-psychotic drug, Seroquel.

Industry-sponsored CMEs can violate federal statutes, according to the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. "When a pharmaceutical manufacturer rewards high-prescribing physicians by directing a CME provider to pay (or overpay) them as CME faculty, consultants, or members of a speaker's bureau," wrote Morris and Taitsman.[7]



Doctor of Medicine





Doctor of Medicine (MD, from the Latin Medicinae Doctor meaning "Teacher of Medicine") is one of two doctoral degrees for physicians granted by most United States medical schools (the other is the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine degree). It is a professional doctorate in some countries, including the United States and Canada; training is entered after obtaining from 90 to 120 credit hours of university level work (see second entry degree) and in most cases after having obtained a Bachelors Degree. In other countries, such as India, the United Kingdom, Germany, and Sri Lanka, the M.D. is a research degree more similar to a Ph.D. In India, Britain, Ireland, and many Commonwealth nations, the medical degree is instead of the MBBS i.e., Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery (MBChB, MB BChir, BM BCh, MB BCh, MBBS, BMBS, BMed, BM) and MD is a higher level of attainment.[citation needed]



Contents

1 History of the medical degree
2 Academic degrees for physicians by country
2.1 United States and Canada
2.1.1 Research physicians
2.2 UK, Ireland and some Commonwealth countries
2.3 Argentina
2.4 India
2.5 Malaysia
2.6 Pakistan
2.7 Romania
2.8 Sri Lanka
2.9 Equivalent degrees in other countries
2.10 Other postgraduate clinical degrees
3 References
4 Further reading


History of the medical degree



According to Sir John Bagot Glubb, Syed Faride and S. M. Imamuddin, the first medical schools to issue academic degrees and diplomas were the teaching Bimaristan (Hospitals) of the medieval Islamic world. The first of these institutions was opened in Baghdad during the time of Harun al-Rashid. They then appeared in Egypt from 872 and then in Islamic Spain, Persia and the Maghreb thereafter. Physicians and surgeons at these hospital-universities gave lectures on Medicine to medical students and then a medical diploma or degree was issued to students who were qualified to be practicing physicians.[1][2][3]


According to Douglas Guthrie,[4] who bases his account on L Thorndike,[5] medical men were first called "Doctor" at the Medical School of Salerno. He states that the Emperor Frederick II decreed in 1221 that no one should practice medicine until he had been publicly examined and approved by the masters of Salerno. The course lasted 5 years, and to start one had to be 21 years old and show proof of legitimacy and of three years study of logic. The course was followed by a year of supervised practice. After the laureation ceremony the practitioners could call themselves "magister" or "doctor."
[edit]Academic degrees for physicians by country



United States and Canada


The first medical schools that granted the MD degree were Columbia, UPenn, Harvard, Maryland, and McGill.[6] These first few North American medical schools that were established were (for the most part) founded by physicians and surgeons who had been trained in England and Scotland. University medical education in England culminated with the MB qualification, and in Scotland the M.D., until in the mid-19th century the public bodies who regulated medical practice at the time required practitioners in Scotland as well as England to hold the dual Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Surgery degrees (MB BS/MBChB/MB BChir/BM BCh etc.). North American Medical schools switched to the tradition of the Ancient universities of Scotland and began granting the M.D. title rather than the MB beginning in the late 18th century. The Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York (which at the time was referred to as King's College of Medicine) was the first American University to grant the M.D. degree instead of the MB.[7]
In the United States, MDs are awarded by medical schools accredited by the Liaison Committee on Medical Education (LCME), an independent body sponsored by the Association of American Medical Colleges and the American Medical Association (AMA).[8][9]


Admission to medical schools in the United States is highly competitive, with about 17,800 out of approximately 47,000 applicants receiving at least one acceptance to any medical school in recent application years. Before entering medical school, students must complete a four-year undergraduate degree and take the Medical College Admission Test (MCAT). Before graduating from a medical school and achieving the Doctor of Medicine degree, most schools require their students to take the United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE) Step 1 and both the Clinical Knowledge and Clinical Skills parts of Step 2. The M.D. degree is typically earned in four years. Following the awarding of the M.D., physicians who wish to practice in the United States are required to complete at least one internship year (PGY-1) and pass the USMLE Step 3. In order to receive Board Eligible or Board Accredited status in a specialty of medicine such as general surgery or internal medicine, then undergo additional specialized training in the form of a residency. Those who wish to further specialize in areas such as cardiology or interventional radiology then complete a fellowship. Depending upon the physician's chosen field, residencies and fellowships involve an additional three to eight years of training after obtaining the M.D. This can be lengthened with additional research years, which can last one, two, or more years. The Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine or D.O. degree is the only other legal and professional equivalent to the M.D. degree in the United States and some parts of Canada. The differences between the M.D. and the D.O. degrees lie in the distinctive osteopathic philosophy and osteopathic manipulative treatment (OMT). In Canada, the M.D. is the basic medical degree required to practice medicine. McGill University Faculty of Medicine is the only medical school in Canada to award M.D., C.M. degrees (abbreviated MDCM). MDCM is from the Latin "Doctorem Medicinae et Chirurgiae Magistrum" meaning "Doctor of Medicine and Master of Surgery".

Research physicians


Even though the M.D. and D.O. are first professional degrees and not doctorates of research (i.e., a Ph.D.), many holders of the M.D. or D.O. degree conduct clinical and basic scientific research and publish in peer-reviewed journals during training and after graduation. Combined medical and research training is offered through programs granting MD/PhD or DO/Ph.D. degrees. The National Institutes of Health through its Medical Scientist Training Program funds M.D./Ph.D. training programs at many universities. Some MDs and DOs choose a research career and receive funding from the NIH as well as other sources such as the Howard Hughes Medical Institute. A few even go on to become Nobel Laureates.[10] The United States Department of Education and the National Science Foundation do not include the M.D. or other professional doctorates among the degrees that are equivalent to research doctorates.[11][12]



International medical graduate[/SIZE]




An international medical graduate (IMG), earlier known as a foreign medical graduate (FMG), is a physician who has graduated from a medical school outside of the country where he or she intends to practice. Generally, the medical school of graduation is one listed in the International Medical Education Directory (IMED) as accredited by the Foundation for Advancement of International Medical Education and Research or the World Health Organization.
Medical schools around the world vary in education standards, curricula, and evaluation methods. The purpose of ECFMG Certification is to assess the readiness of international medical graduates to enter clinical specialty training programs as resident physicians and fellowship programs in the United States.



United States

Graduates of Canadian M.D. programs are not considered IMGs in the United States.[3]


Progress


The main pathway for IMGs who wish to be licensed as physicians in the United States is to complete a U.S. residency hospital program. The general method to apply for residency programs is through the National Resident Matching Program (abbreviated NRMP, also called "the Match"). To participate in the NRMP, an IMG is required to have an ECFMG certification[4] by the "rank order list certification deadline" time (usually in February of the year of the match).[5] To acquire an ECFMG certification, the main requirements are:[6]


Completion of USMLE Step 1, USMLE Step 2 Clinical Knowledge and USMLE Step 2 Clinical Skills



A medical diploma of medical education taken at an institution registered in the International Medical Education Directory (IMED)
In comparison, regular graduates from medical schools in the United States and Canada need to complete USMLE Steps 1 and 2 as well, but can participate in the NRMP while still doing their final year of medical school before acquiring their medical diplomas.[7] In effect, taking regular administrative delays into account, and with residency programs starting around July, there is a gap of at least half a year for IMGs between graduation from medical school and beginning of a residency program.
Those IMGs who have successfully passed the necessary USMLE exams and obtained the ECFMG certification can then apply to U.S. residency positions via the NRMP and ERAS.

One study came to the result that almost half of IMGs were unsuccessful in their first attempts in the pursuit of a U.S. residency position, and three-quarters began a residency after five years.[8] It also indicated that IMGs were considerably older when they first applied for a residency position than are most U.S. medical graduates, with mean age of IMGs when the ECFMG certificate was issued being 31.3 years, with a standard deviation of 5.6 years.[8]




Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine




Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O. or DO) is a professional doctoral degree for physicians in the United States. Holders of the D.O. degree are known as osteopathic physicians and have the same rights, privileges, and responsibilities as physicians with a Doctor of Medicine degree (M.D.).[1] D.O. physicians are licensed to practice the full scope of medicine and surgery in all 50 states. Depending on the state, licensure may be issue from a combined board of D.O. and M.D. physicians, or a from a separate board.[2] Osteopathic physicians comprise 7 percent of the total U.S. physician population; there are over 70,480 D.O. physicians in the country, of which 63,121 are in active practice.[3]

Currently, there are 29 medical schools with 37 locations throughout the United States that offer the D.O. degree,[4] and 141 medical schools that offer the M.D. degree.[5][6] As of 2011, 1 in 5 medical students in the United States were D.O. students.[7][8] The curricula at osteopathic medical schools are very similar to those at M.D.-granting medical schools.[9] Four years in total length,[9] the first two years of medical school focus on the biomedical and clinical sciences, followed by two years of core clinical training in the clinical specialties. One notable difference in the education at D.O.-granting medical schools is the inclusion of 300 &#8211; 500 additional hours in the study of hands-on manual medicine and the body's musculoskeletal system. This training, referred to as osteopathic manipulative medicine,[1] is absent in the M.D. curricula.

Upon graduation from medical school, osteopathic physicians enter internship or residency training programs, which may be followed by fellowship training.[9] Many D.O. physicians attend the same graduate medical education programs as their M.D. counterparts.[10] and then take M.D. specialty board exams,[11] while other D.O. graduates enter osteopathic programs[12][13] and take D.O. specialty board examinations.[14] However, as of June 2015, all post-graduate training for both D.O. and M.D. physicians will be accredited by the ACGME.[15][16]




Education and Training




Osteopathic medical school curricula are virtually identical to those at schools granting the Doctor of Medicine M.D. degree. Once admitted to an osteopathic medical school, it takes about four years to graduate, and the schooling is roughly divided into the pre-clinical and clinical years. The pre-clinical years, the first and second years, focus on the biomedical and clinical sciences. The clinical years, the third and fourth years, consist of core clinical training in the clinical specialties. Osteopathic medical school accreditation standards require training in internal medicine, obstetrics/gynecology, pediatrics, family practice, surgery, psychiatry, emergency medicine, radiology, preventive medicine and public health.

When it came too Harrison's Principles of Internal Medicine, "the training, practice, credentialing, licensure, and reimbursement of osteopathic physicians is virtually indistinguishable from those of physicians with M.D. qualifications, with 4 years of osteopathic medical school followed by specialty and subspecialty training and [board] certification." However, D.O. schools provide an additional 300 &#8211; 500 hours in the study of hands-on manual medicine and the body's musculoskeletal system, which is referred to as osteopathic manipulative medicine.
After completing medical school, D.O. physicians begin graduate medical training. Many D.O. physicians attend the same internship and residency training programs as their M.D. counterparts,and then take M.D. specialty board exams while other D.O. graduates enter osteopathic internships and residencies and take D.O. specialty board examinations.


Further information: Osteopathic medicine in the United States
Student Aptitude Indicators



Some authors note the differences in average GPA and MCAT scores of students who matriculate at D.O. schools versus those who matriculate at M.D. schools within the United States. In 2011, the average MCAT and GPA for students entering U.S.-based M.D. programs were 31.1 and 3.67,[20] respectively, and 26.51 and 3.50 for D.O. matriculants, although the gap has been getting smaller every year. Up to one third of students matriculating at a D.O. medical school were not accepted by M.D. programs;however, DO medical schools are more likely to accept non-traditional students who are older and entering medicine as a second career, or coming from non-science majors. D.O. medical students are required to take the Comprehensive Osteopathic Medical Licensure Examination (COMLEX-USA) that is sponsored by the National Board of Osteopathic Medical Examiners (NBOME). This exam is a prerequisite for osteopathic residency programs, which are available in almost every specialty of medicine and surgery. D.O. medical students may also choose to sit for the United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE) if they wish to take an M.D. residency; however, if they have taken COMLEX, it may or may not be needed, depending on the individual institution&#8217;s program requirements.First-time USMLE pass rates for D.O. and M.D. students in 2011 are as follows: Step 1: 89% and 94%, Step 2 CK: 93% and 97%, and Step 2 CS: 93% and 97% respectively; Step 3: 94% and 100%--but this number may be misleading, as 18 D.O. students compared to 18,314 M.D. students, were evaluated for Step 3.


Further information: Comparison of MD and DO in the United States
Licensing and board certification




To obtain a license to practice medicine in the United States, medical students must pass one of two licensing boards at the conclusion of their medical training: USMLE (United States Medical Licensing Exam) or COMLEX (Comprehensive Osteopathic Medical Licensing Exam).[31] Those that have received or are in the process of earning an M.D. or D.O. are both eligible to sit for the USMLE. Because of their additional training, only holders of the D.O. are eligible to sit for the COMLEX.[32]

Upon completion of internship and residency requirements for their chosen medical specialty, and depending on whether the program attended as ACGME or AOA accredited, holders of the D.O. may elect to be board certified by either a specialty board (through the American Medical Association's American Board of Medical Specialties) or an osteopathic specialty board (through the American Osteopathic Association Bureau of Osteopathic Specialists certifying boards).

Depending on the state, medical licensure may be issued from a combined board (D.O. and M.D.) or a separate board of medical examiners.[2] All of the 70 state medical boards are members of the Federation of State Medical Boards.[33]



MD/PhD




The combined Doctor of Medicine and Doctor of Philosophy M.D., Ph.D. degree is a dual doctoral degree for physician scientists. The degrees are granted by medical schools.



Training Programs




In the United States, the M.D., Ph.D. degree can be obtained through dual-degree programs offered at some medical schools. The idea for an integrated training program began at Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine in 1956[1] and quickly spread to other research medical schools. In 1964, the National Institutes of Health (NIH) developed a grant to underwrite some universities' MD/PhD programs. This funding was distributed through the Medical Scientist Training Program (MSTP). While the MSTP-designation is a very prestigious recognition, there are still many non-MSTP dual-degree programs.

Admission to a dual degree program is not a requirement to receive M.D. and Ph.D. degrees. An individual has the option to complete each degree separately through single-degree programs. However, the student is responsible for all medical school tuition and does not receive a stipend during their M.D. education. Furthermore, since the Ph.D. training is not streamlined with the medical training, students will usually take an additional 3&#8211;5 years to complete their Ph.D.

A Ph.D. may also be obtained by physicians during the residency training period. This combined research and graduate-level medical education are offered by a small minority of residency programs. This additional education typically extends the residency period by three to four years.
[edit]Training Structure




Pre-Doctoral


Upon matriculating in a M.D., Ph.D. programs students will often follow a 2-3-2 or 2-4-2 plan. In this system, students will complete their medical school's pre-clinical curriculum (2 years), transition into their Ph.D. graduate training (3&#8211;4 years), and then finally complete the clinical rotations (2 years). Some students may elect to approach their training with alternate plans but this is rare and often administrators prohibit such plans.


Post-Doctoral


Upon receiving their M.D., Ph.D. dual degree, physician-scientists may choose a variety of career paths. The most common continues to be residency training with an additional laboratory training as well. This paradigm allows for the true physician-scientist career of developing therapies in the laboratory that can be taken seamlessly into the clinic for the benefit of patients. However, a physician-scientist may also elect to refuse residency training, thereby having a career essentially like a Ph.D.-only scientist. Finally, a physician-scientist may elect to work in the private sector with no further formal academic clinical nor research training.
[edit]Benefits of the Dual-Degree



Financial Compensation



Most M.D., Ph.D. programs (all MSTPs) cover all medical school tuition, provide a stipend, and cover health insurance expenses. This allows M.D., Ph.D. students to maintain financial-equality to their M.D.-only counterparts who can earn their full clinical salary sooner but also have to pay off large loans.

Residency Programs


Candidates with M.D., Ph.D. dual degrees are favorably looked upon in University-based residencies that encourage research electives.
Career Path



The vast majority (over 80%) of MD/PhD graduates eventually choose to enter academia, government, or industry where medical research is a central component of their duties. According to a FASEB study conducted in 2000, graduates of NIH-funded MSTPs make up just 2.5% of medical school graduates each year, but after graduation, account for about one third of all NIH research grants awarded to physicians. Many MD/PhD graduates also practice clinical medicine in their field of expertise.




United States Medical Licensing Examination




The United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE) is a multi-part professional exam sponsored by the Federation of State Medical Boards (FSMB) and the National Board of Medical Examiners (NBME). Physicians with an M.D. degree are required to pass this examination before being permitted to practice medicine in the United States of America; see below for requirements of physicians with a D.O. degree.[1]
The USMLE assesses a physician's ability to apply knowledge, concepts, and principles, and to determine fundamental patient-centered skills that are important in health and disease and that constitute the basis of safe and effective patient care. Examination committees composed of medical educators and clinicians from across the United States and its territories prepare the examination materials each year.


Students and graduates of U.S. or Canadian medical school programs accredited by either the Liaison Committee on Medical Education (LCME) or Committee on Accreditation of Canadian Medical Schools, leading to the Doctor of Medicine (M.D.) degree, or by the American Osteopathic Association (AOA), leading to the Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.) degree, register for Step 1 and Step 2 of the USMLE with the NBME. Students and graduates of medical schools outside the United States or Canada register for Step 1 and Step 2 with the Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates (ECFMG). Graduates of medical schools in and outside the United States and Canada register for Step 3 with the FSMB or with a medical licensing authority in the United States. Each of the three steps of the USMLE examination complements the other; no step stands alone in the assessment of readiness for medical licensure. The USMLE program recommends that for Step 3 eligibility, licensure authorities require the completion, or near completion, of at least one postgraduate training year in a program of graduate medical education accredited by the Accreditation Council on Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) or the American Osteopathic Association (AOA).
All three steps of the USMLE exam must be passed before a physician with an M.D. degree is eligible to apply for an unrestricted license to practice medicine in the United States. U.S. osteopathic medical school graduates are permitted to take the USMLE for medical licensure, which they can also obtain by passing the multi-part Comprehensive Osteopathic Medical Licensing Examination (COMLEX) professional exam. Students who have graduated from medical schools outside the US and Canada must pass all three steps of the USMLE to be licensed to practice in the US, regardless of the title of their degree. Overall pass rates for first time USMLE Step 1 test takers are: 94% for U.S. M.D. medical school graduates, 89% for U.S. D.O. osteopathic medical school graduates, and 73% for international medical school graduates. First-time USMLE Step 2 CK test taker pass rates are: 97% for U.S. M.D. medical school graduates and 93% for U.S. D.O. medical school graduates. First-time USMLE Step 2 CS test taker pass rates are: 98% for U.S. M.D. medical school graduates and 88% for U.S. D.O. medical school graduates. Overall pass rates for first time USMLE Step 3 test takers are: 97% for U.S. M.D. medical school graduates, 94% for U.S. D.O. medical school graduates, and 78% for international medical school graduates. (In these statistics, "U.S. M.D. medical school graduates" includes graduates of Canadian M.D. programs.)




Step 1




USMLE Step 1 assesses whether medical school students or graduates understand and can apply important concepts of the basic sciences to the practice of medicine. As of 2007, it covers the following subjects, in both systemic (general and individual anatomical characteristics) and procedural (functional, therapeutic, environmental, and abnormality) themes:

1. Anatomy,
2. Physiology,
3. Biochemistry,
4. Pharmacology,
5. Pathology,
6. Microbiology,
7. Behavioral sciences,

Interdisciplinary topics, such as nutrition, genetics, and aging.[4]
US medical students take Step 1 at the end of the Basic Sciences portion of the curriculum, usually after the second year of medical school. It is an eight-hour computer-based exam consisting of 322 multiple-choice questions (MCQs) divided into seven blocks each consisting of 46 questions. As of summer 2008, some questions include audio and video. Each block must be finished within an hour. The remaining hour is break time. An optional tutorial about how to use the computer program of the exam is offered at the beginning of the exam and takes 15 minutes. This time is deducted from the hour of allotted break time. A quality assurance survey is presented at the end, provided some of the original eight hours is left over.
Scores are reported as a three digit score and a two digit score, however as of July 1, 2011 only the 3-digit score is reported on USMLE transcripts.[5] On January 1, 2010, the passing score was raised from 185 to 188.[6] The average score in 2011 was 225 with a standard deviation of 22.[7] If the student passes the exam, he or she may not repeat the exam to achieve a higher score.

The Step 1 score is frequently used in medical residency applications as a measure of a candidate's likelihood to succeed in that particular residency (and on that specialty's board exams). Step 1 score has been cited as the most important criteria by residency program directors when selecting graduating medical students for their residency program.[8] Average USMLE Step 1 scores for various residencies are available in "Charting Outcomes in the Match" at
http://www.nrmp.org/data/chartingoutcomes2011.pdf. Averages for graduates of U.S. medical schools who matched into residency range from 213 for a Family Medicine to 249 for Plastic Surgery.[9]
The Step 1 exam is widely viewed as the hardest and most important examination a medical student will take during his/her career.


Step 2



USMLE Step 2 is designed to assess whether medical school students or graduates can apply medical knowledge, skills and understanding of clinical science essential for provision of patient care under supervision. US medical students typically take Step 2 during the fourth year of medical school. Step 2 is further divided into two separate exams.


Step 2-CK


USMLE Step 2 CK is designed to assess clinical knowledge through a traditional, multiple-choice examination. It is a 9 hour exam consisting of 8 blocks of 44 questions each. One hour is given for each block of questions. The subjects included in this exam are clinical sciences like Medicine, Surgery, Pediatrics, Psychiatry and Obstetrics & Gynecology.


Step 2-CS


USMLE Step 2 CS is designed to assess clinical skills through simulated patient interactions, in which the examinee interacts with standardized patients portrayed by actors. Each examinee faces 12 Standardized Patients (SPs) and has 15 minutes to complete history taking and clinical examination for each patient, and then 10 more minutes to write a patient note describing the findings, initial differential diagnosis list and a list of initial tests. Administration of the Step 2-CS began in 2004. The examination is only offered in five cities across the country:



Philadelphia
Chicago
Atlanta
Houston
Los Angeles
Before 2004, a similar exam, the Clinical Skills Assessment (CSA) was used to assess the clinical skills of foreign medical graduates.


Step 3




Main article: USMLE Step 3
USMLE Step 3 is the final exam in the USMLE series designed to assess whether a medical school graduate can apply medical knowledge and understanding of biomedical and clinical science essential for the unsupervised practice of medicine. Graduates of US medical schools typically take this exam at the end of the first year of residency. Foreign medical graduates can take Step 3 before starting residency in about ten U.S. states. Connecticut is frequently chosen for such purpose because it does not require simultaneous application for licensure, unlike New York. Starting from 2014 USMLE Step 3 will be divided into two separate parts.
Step 3 is 16 hour examination divided over two-days. Each day of testing must be completed within eight hours.
The first day of testing includes 336 multiple-choice items divided into 7 blocks, each consisting of 48 items. Examinees must complete each block within sixty minutes.

The second day of testing includes 144 multiple-choice items, divided into 4 blocks of 36 items. Examinees are required to complete each block within forty-five minutes. Approximately 3 hours are allowed for these multiple-choice item blocks. Also on the second day are twelve Clinical Case Simulations, where the examinees are required to 'manage' patients in real-time case simulations. Examinees enter orders for medications and/or investigations into the simulation software, and the condition of the patient changes . Cases are of 20 or 10 minutes.
Approximately forty-five minutes to one hour is available for break time on each of the two days of testing.


Exam Format



The USMLE first started out as a paper examination, converting to a computer based multiple choice examination. The test can be taken at Prometric test centers worldwide. However, the Step 2 CS and the Step 3 can only be taken in the USA. The software used to administer the test, the NBME FREDtm, was upgraded in 2008 to a new version, FREDtm V2. The implementation of this changeover continues.


Performance



Grade point average in undergraduate science courses and performance on the MCAT, particularly the biological sciences and physical sciences sections, are strong predictors of performance on the USMLE step 1 and step 2 exams, though it is unclear whether the verbal reasoning portion of the MCAT has any predictive value. The selectivity of undergraduate institution is also a predictor of step 1 and step 2 performance, even when controlling for undergraduate GPA and MCAT score.




USMLE Step 2 Clinical Knowledge





he USMLE-Step 2-CK ("Clinical Knowledge") is the nine-hour long multiple-choice portion of the second part of the United States Medical Licensure Examination.It assesses clinical knowledge through a traditional, multiple-choice examination. In contrast to the USMLE Step 1, the focus is much more on clinical application of medical knowledge. It assesses the ability to apply medical knowledge, skills, and understanding of clinical science essential for the provision of patient care under supervision. The USMLE Step 2 is generally taken during the 4th year of medical school by medical students. From January 2010, the registration fee for the test is $790 for students who take it in North America, with additional charges for applicants who choose a testing region outside the United States or Canada.



Format


The exam is a nine-hour single-day computer-based test composed of eight question sets with 42-51 questions per set (352 multiple-choice questions in total). Each section is one hour long. The test taker is permitted 45 minutes, in total for the whole day, for the purpose of breaks that can only be taken between sections. There is a 15 minute tutorial at the beginning of the exam, which the test-taker can choose to skip, and have the time added to the break time. If the taker finishes any section before the alloted 1 hour time limit, the remainder of the time is added to break time. The test is administered at the Prometric testing sites around the world.

Topics



Step 2 CK includes test items in the following content areas: internal medicine, obstetrics and gynecology, pediatrics, preventive medicine, psychiatry, surgery, other areas relevant to provision of care under supervision.

Most Step 2 CK test items describe clinical situations and require that you provide one or more of the following: diagnosis, a prognosis, an indication of underlying mechanisms of disease, the next step in medical care, including preventive measures.

Step 2 CK is a broadly based, integrated examination. It frequently requires interpretation of tables and laboratory data, imaging studies, photographs of gross and microscopic pathologic specimens, and results of other diagnostic studies. Step 2 CK classifies test items along two dimensions: disease category and physician task.


Scoring



Scoring is reported in 2 digit and 3 digit scores. On the 3-digit scale, most scores fall between 140 and 260, with the mean score for first-time examinees from accredited medical schools in the United States in the range of 220 to 230, and the standard deviation approximately 25. The 2-digit score is derived from the 3-digit score, so that 75 always corresponds to the minimum passing score.[4] Students are required to get 75 in the two digit score and 196 in the three digit score to pass.[5] The minimum passing score on the USMLE Step 2 CK has increased to 196 for students taking the test after July 1st, 2012.


Effect on Residency Matching



The USMLE Step 2 CK score is one of many factors considered by residency programs in selecting applicants. Along with the USMLE Step 1, this test is a standardized measure of all applicants. The median USMLE Step 2 scores for graduates of U.S. Medical Schools for various residencies are charted in Chart 7 on page 10 of "Charting Outcomes in the Match" available at http://www.nrmp.org/data/chartingoutcomes2009v3.pdf
This same data is available for the 2011 Match at http://www.nrmp.org/data/chartingoutcomes2011.pdf
[edit]See also



USMLE Step 1
USMLE Step 2 Clinical Skills
USMLE Step 3



USMLE Step 2 Clinical Skills




Step 2 Clinical Skills (Step 2 CS) of the United States Medical Licensing Examination (USMLE) is an exam that is currently administered to medical students/graduates who wish to become licensed physicians in the U.S.[citation needed]. It is comparable to the COMLEX-USA Level 2-PE exam, taken by osteopathic medical students/graduates who seek licensure as physicians in the U.S.[1] From January 2011, the registration fee for the test is $1355, .[2] Historically, US students have taken Step 2 CS late in their senior year, prior to graduation. However, some residency programs (such as those at the University of California, San Francisco) now require students to record a passing score for both Step 2 CS and CK prior to February 15 of the application year.[3] This has led some US medical schools in 2009 and 2010 to begin recommending that students take Step 2 CS in the Fall of their senior year.



Exam Structure



The USMLE Step 2CS exam consists of a series of patient encounters in which the examinees must see standardized patients (SPs), take a history, do a physical examination, determine differential diagnoses, and then write a patient note based on their determinations. The topics covered are common outpatient or Emergency Room visits which are encountered in the fields of internal medicine, surgery, psychiatry, pediatrics, and Obstetrics and Gynaecology. Examinees are expected to investigate the simulated patient's chief complaint, as well as obtain a thorough assessment of their past medical history, medications, allergies, social history (including alcohol, tobacco, drug use, sexual practices, etc.), and family history. Usually, examinees have one telephone encounter, speaking to an SP through a microphone during which there is no physical exam component.

Examinees are allowed 15 minutes to complete each encounter and 10 minutes for the patient note for a single patient encounter. The patient note is slightly different than a standard SOAP note. For the exam note, the examinees will document the pertinent facts relating to the history of present illness as well as elements of the past medical history, medication history, allergies, social history, family history, and physical exam. The examinees will then state up to 5 differential diagnoses relating to the simulated patient's symptoms, and up to 5 tests or procedures to investigate the simulated patient's complaints; the examinees will not recommend any specific treatments in the note in contrast to a true clinic SOAP note (i.e., IV fluids, antibiotics, or other medications). Over the course of an 8-hour exam day, the examinees complete 12 such encounters. Step 2 CS examinees will be required to type patient notes on a computer beginning July 17, 2011.[4]
USMLE Step 2 CS replaced the former ECFMG Clinical Skills Assessment (CSA) effective June 14, 2004. The last administration of the ECFMG Clinical Skills Assessment (CSA) took place on April 16, 2004.


Grading




The test is graded on a pass/fail basis, without any numerical score associated with it (as opposed to the other parts of the USMLE series). In order to pass, one must achieve a grade of "pass" in each of the three sub-components of the exam.[5] A score report is provided in the event of failure.
Integrated Clinical Encounter (ICE) - This component includes the ability of the examinees to collect pertinent clinical information from the SP, and to write an appropriate patient note with differential after the clinical encounter. The former part is graded by the simulated patient, and the latter by a practicing physician.

Communication and Interpersonal Skills (CIS) - This component includes evaluating the examinees' question asking skills (asking open ended questions, avoiding repetition and medical jargon), information sharing skills (acknowledging patient concerns, providing counseling and information about what will happen in the future), and professionalism / rapport (asking about feelings and concerns, showing consideration for patient comfort, proper hygiene during examinations, providing empathy and respect for the simulated patient).

Spoken English Proficiency (SEP) - This component includes clarity of spoken English communication in the context of pronunciation, word choice, and minimizing the need to repeat questions or statements.




USMLE Step 3




Step 3 is the final exam in the USMLE series of examinations. It is part of the licensing requirements for Doctors of Medicine (M.D.), Doctors of Osteopathic Medicine (D.O.), and international medical graduates to practice medicine in the United States. The USMLE Step 3 exam is considered as the final step in the series of medical licensure examinations. Generally, it is a pre-requisite of the majority of the state licensing boards.

USMLE Step 3 tests several concepts that are often required to provide general health care to a patient. USMLE Step 3 is a mandatory exam that must be passed in order to obtain license as a practicing physician. Some International Medical Graduates are required to pass USMLE Step 3 in order to obtain an H1 Visa.

Most of the USMLE Step 3 exam (75 percent) consists of multiple choice questions, while the remaining 25 percent are clinical case simulations. A full description of the content of the exam can be found on the USMLE website.[1] USMLE Step 3 exams are delivered online and are available throughout the year to the examinees. The examinee needs to register via a state licensing board for this exam.

Starting from 2014 USMLE Step 3 will be divided into two parts.[2]



Examination Content



USMLE Step 3 examination tests on general topics that are required to understand and practice concepts of general medicine/ family medicine.


The following components are tested:

Normal conditions and disease categories (normal growth and development, basic concepts, and general principles)

Clinical encounter frame (initial work up, continuing care, urgent intervention)
Physician task (applying scientific concepts, formulating a diagnosis based on history, physical exam, and lab findings, and managing the patient).
Clinical encounter frames are common clinical scenarios physicians may encounter. They range from nonemergency problems, to the continuity of care, to life-threatening emergency situations encountered in emergency departments, clinics, offices, care facilities, inpatient settings, and on the telephone. Each test item, in an encounter frame, represents one of the six physician tasks. For example, initial care encounters emphasize taking a history and performing a physical examination. In contrast, continued care encounters emphasize decisions regarding prognosis and management.


Eligibility for USMLE Step 3



To be eligible to take the USMLE Step 3 exam, the physician must hold an M.D. or D.O. degree, and successfully pass the USMLE Step 1 and Step 2 Clinical Knowledge exams. International medical graduates must obtain certification by the Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates (ECFMG) or successfully complete a &#8220;Fifth Pathway&#8221; program. The Step 2 CS may also be required.


Preparation strategies for USMLE Step 3



Typically, worldwide examinees require two to three months to prepare for this exam, although in the US, examinees who are American medical school graduates commonly prepare for only a few days to a few weeks. An examinee is tested on their clinical skills, diagnostic acumen, decision making, treatment guidelines and follow up care. Examinees who are not comfortable preparing for this exam on their own may take review courses, either in person or through distance-learning services.



COMLEX-USA




The Comprehensive Osteopathic Medical Licensing Examination of the United States COMLEX-USA or the Boards is a series of three osteopathic medical licensing examinations administered by the National Board of Osteopathic Medical Examiners NBOME similar to the United States Medical Licensing Examination USMLE COMLEX-USA is the most common pathway by which osteopathic physicians (D.O.s) apply for medical licensure, and is accepted in all 50 states. The 3-digit standard scores of COMLEX-USA Level 1, Level 2- Cognitive Evaluation CE, and Level 3 have a range of 200-800 and a mean of 500. 400 is the minimum passing score for COMLEX-USA Levels 1 and 2; 350 for COMLEX-USA Level 3.




COMLEX-USA Level 1:

is typically taken after completion of the second year of medical school. The exam is consist of 400 questions administered in one day and consists of two, four-hour exam sessions separated by a 40-minute break. Each of the four-hour sessions allows a ten-minute break which is subtracted from the four-hour test time. Candidates are expected to know the basic mechanisms of health and disease process. The mean score for the COMLEX-USA Level 1 is 500, and is an important factor in determining a medical student's competitiveness when applying to residency programs. Student performance on COMLEX-USA Level 1 strongly correlates with MCAT biology section scores and undergraduate science GPA, as well as medical school grades.




COMLEX-USA Level 2

taken during the third or fourth year of medical school, consists of two parts: Level 2-Cognitive Evaluation CE and Level 2-Performance Evaluation PE. Level 2-CE requires candidats to demonstrate knowledge of clinical concepts and medical decision-making. The examination is problem-based and symptoms-based, integrating the clinical disciplines of:

1. emergency medicine
2. family medicine
3. internal medicine
4. obstetrics/gynecology
5. osteopathic principles
6. pediatrics
7. psychiatry
8. surgery

COMLEX-USA Level 3



The final examination, COMLEX-USA Level 3, is typically taken after starting a residency program and covers the clinical disciplines of medicine, including:

1. emergency medicine
2. family medicine
3. internal medicine
4. obstetrics/gynecology
5. osteopathic principles
6. pediatrics
7. psychiatry
8. surgery

Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education




The Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME) is the body responsible for accrediting the majority of graduate medical training programs (i.e., internships, residencies, and fellowships, aka subspecialty residencies) for physicians in the United States. It is a non-profit private council that evaluates and accredits medical residency and internship programs. The ACGME was founded in 1981 and was preceded by the Liaison Committee for Graduate Medical Education, which was established in 1972.[1] The ACGME currently oversees the post-graduate education and training for all MD and the majority of DO physicians in the United States.[2] Plans call for the ACGME to oversee the Unified Accreditation System for all MDs and DOs in 2015.[3]

The ACGME's member organizations are the American Board of Medical Specialties, American Hospital Association, American Medical Association, Association of American Medical Colleges, and the Council of Medical Specialty Societies each of whom appoints four members to the ACGME's board of directors.

On October 24, 2012, the ACGME, the American Osteopathic Association (AOA) and the American Association of Colleges of Osteopathic Medicine (AACOM) announced an agreement to pursue a single, unified accreditation system for graduate medical education programs in the United States beginning in July 2015. Plans call for the ACGME to accredit all osteopathic graduate medical education programs currently accredited by AOA. AOA and AACOM would then become organizational members of ACGME.[4]



ACGME Proposal for Common Program Requirements[9]



Effective July 2014:
III.A.2. Prerequisite clinical education for entry into ACGME-accredited residency programs must be accomplished in ACGME-accredited residency programs or Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada (RCPSC)-accredited residency programs located in Canada.
Effective July 2015:



II.A.3. Prerequisite clinical education for entry into ACGME-accredited fellowship programs must meet the following qualifications:
III.A.3.a) for fellowship programs that require completion of a residency program, the completion of an ACGME-accredited residency program or an RCPSC-accredited residency program located in Canada.
II.A.3.b) for fellowship programs that require completion of some clinical education, clinical education that is accomplished in ACGME accredited residency programs or RCPSC-accredited residency programs located in Canada.


​

Under-Grad- Biology

Code:

Undergrad In Biology:

Course	Title
Biol 104	Biology for Elementary School Teachers
Biol 106	Introductory Biology Seminar
Biol 114	 Introductory Astrobiology
Biol 118	Survey of Physiology
Biol 119	Elementary Physiology Laboratory
Biol 180	Introductory Biology
Biol 200	Introductory Biology
Biol 220	Introductory Biology
Biol 250	Marine Biology
Biol 280	The History of Life
Biol 302	Lab Techniques in Cell and Molecular Biology
Biol 315	Biological Impacts of Climate Change
Biol 340	Genetics and Molecular Ecology
Biol 350	Foundations in Physiology
Biol 354	Foundations in Evolution and Systematics
Biol 355	Foundations in Molecular Cell Biology
Biol 356	Foundations in Ecology
Biol 380	Biomedical Advances
Biol 399	Biology Internship Program
Biol 400	Experiments in Molecular Biology
Biol 411	Developmental Biology
Biol 427	Biomechanics
Biol 441	Morphology and Anatomy of Land Plants
Biol 442	Mushrooms & Related Fungi
Biol 450	Vertebrate Paleontology
Biol 453	Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates
Biol 462	Advanced Animal Physiology
Biol 463	Advanced Animal Physiology Lab
Biol 465	Comparitive Endocrinology
Biol 468	Medical Physiology
Biol 473	Limnology
Biol 474	Limnology Laboratory
Biol 479	Marine Biology Research
Biol 481	Experimental Evolutionary Ecology
Biol 483	Paleobiology Seminar
Biol 485	Cell, Molecular and Developmental Seminar
Biol 488	Senior Seminar in Physiology
Biol 491	Special Topics in Biological Science for Teachers
Biol 492	The Teaching of Biology
Biol 496	Peer Teaching Assistants in Biology
Biol 498	Library Research
Biol 500	Topics in Biology
Biol 502	Grant Writing
Biol 505	Problems in Biological Instruction
Biol 511	Topics in Mathematical Biology
Biol 520	Departmental Seminar
Biol 540	Seminar in Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology
Biol 541	Topics in Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology
Biol 543	Biology of Drosophila Seminar
Biol 545	MCD Professional Skills Seminar
Biol 550	Seminar in Evolution and Systematics
Biol 551	Topics in Evolution and Systematics
Biol 552	Advanced Evolution
Biol 557	Vertebrate Paleontology
Biol 560	Topics in Ecology
Biol 563	Experimental Evolutionary Ecology
Biol 571	Topics in Conservation Biology
Biol 580	Seminar in Physiology
Biol 581	Topics in Physiology
Biol 590	Organismal Biology Seminar
Biol 591	Topics in Organismal Biology
Time Schedule >>
Course	Title
Biol 104	Biology for Elementary School Teachers
Biol 106	Introductory Biology Seminar
Biol 118	Survey of Physiology
Biol 119	Elementary Physiology Laboratory
Biol 180	Introductory Biology
Biol 200	Introductory Biology
Biol 220	Introductory Biology
Biol 300	Introduction to Neuroscience
Biol 302	Laboratory Techniques in Cell and Molecular Biology
Biol 311	Biology of Fishes
Biol 350	Foundations in Physiology
Biol 355	Foundations in Molecular Cell Biology
Biol 356	Foundations in Ecology
Biol 399	Biology Internship Program
Biol 400	Molecular Biology
Biol 401	Advanced Cell Biology
Biol 405	Cellular and Molecular Biology of Human Disease
Biol 409	Sociobiology
Biol 411	Developmental Biology
Biol 423	Marine Ecological Processes
Biol 424	Plant Eco-Physiology
Biol 434	Invertebrate Zoology
Biol 440	General Mycology
Biol 453	Comparative Anatomy of Vertebrates
Biol 457	Chemical Communication
Biol 460	Mammalian Physiology
Biol 469	Evolution & Medicine
Biol 476	Conservation Biology
Biol 477	Marine Biology Seminar
Biol 478	Topics in Sustainable Fisheries
Biol 479	Marine Biology Research
Biol 483	Paleobiology Seminar
Biol 486	Ecology Seminar
Biol 490	Careers in Biology Seminar
Biol 491	Special Topics in Biological Science for Teachers
Biol 496	Peer Teaching Assistants in Biology
Biol 498	Library Research
Biol 499	Undergraduate Research
Biol 511	Topics in Mathematical Biology
Biol 520	Departmental Seminar
Biol 541	Topics in Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology
Biol 542	Analysis of Development
Biol 543	Biology of Drosophila Seminar
Biol 550	Seminar in Evolution and Systematics
Biol 551	Topics in Evolution and Systematics
Biol 553	Applied Phylogenetics
Biol 560	Seminar in Ecology
Biol 561	Topics in Ecology
Biol 570	Seminar in Conservation Biology
Biol 571	Topics in Conservation Biology
Biol 581	Topics in Physiology
Biol 591	Topics in Organismal Biology
Biol 600	Independent Study or Research
Biol 700	Master's Thesis
Biol 800	Doctoral Dissertation
Honors 396	Interdisciplinary Special Topics--Natural Science
Psych 502	Core Concepts in Animal Behavior
Time Schedule >>
Course	Title
Biol 106	Introductory Biology Seminar
Biol 118	Survey of Physiology
Biol 119	Elementary Physiology Laboratory
Biol 180	Introductory Biology
Biol 200	Introductory Biology
Biol 220	Introductory Biology
Biol 240	The Urban Farm
Biol 305	Science Communication: Video Storytelling in Biology
Biol 315	Biological Impacts of Climate Change
Biol 317	Plant Classification and Identification
Biol 325	Tree of Life
Biol 331	Landscape Plant Recognition
Biol 350	Foundations in Physiology
Biol 354	Foundations in Evolution and Systematics
Biol 355	Foundations in Molecular Cell Biology
Biol 399	Biology Internship Program
Biol 400	Molecular Biology
Biol 401	Advanced Cell Biology Lab
Biol 405	Cellular and Molecular Biology of Human Disease
Biol 412	Developmental Biology Lab
Biol 418	Biological Clocks and Rhythms
Biol 425	Advanced Plant Physiology and Development
Biol 426	Advanced Plant Physiology Laboratory
Biol 430	Marine Zoology
Biol 443	Evolution of Mammals
Biol 444	Natural History of Birds
Biol 446	Biology of Algae
Biol 451	Invertebrate Paleontology
Biol 452	Vertebrate Biology
Biol 454	Entomology
Biol 455	Entomology Laboratory
Biol 459	Developmental Neurobiology
Biol 471	Plant Ecology
Biol 479	Alpine Plant Ecology
Biol 480	Field Ecology
Biol 482	Microscopy and Photography for Biologists
Biol 483	Paleobiology Seminar
Biol 484	Senior Seminar in Evolution and Systematics
Biol 485a	Cell, Molecular and Developmental Biology Seminar
Biol 485b	Immunology Seminar
Biol 488	Senior Seminar in Physiology
Biol 489b	Plant Biology Seminar
Biol 490	Undergraduate Seminar
Biol 491	Special Topics in Biological Science for Teachers
Biol 492 A	The Teaching of Biology
Biol 492 B	The Teaching of Biology
Biol 496	Peer Teaching Assistants in Biology
Biol 497	Ecology of Climate Change
Biol 498	Library Research
Biol 499	Undergraduate Research
Biol 505 A	Problems in Biological Instruction
Biol 505 B	Problems in Biological Instruction
Biol 511	Topics in Mathematical Biology
Biol 520	Departmental Seminar
Biol 540	Seminar in Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology
Biol 541	Topics in Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology
Biol 543	Biology of Drosophila Seminar
Biol 545	MCD-Biology Professional Skills Seminar
Biol 550	Seminar in Evolution and Systematics
Biol 551	Topics in Evolution and Systematics
Biol 560	Seminar in Ecology
Biol 561	Topics in Ecology
Biol 564	Advanced Experimental Evolutionary Ecology
Biol 571	Topics in Conservation Biology
Biol 581	Topics in Physiology
Biol 590	Organismal Biology Seminar
Biol 591	Topics in Organismal Biology
Biol 600	Independent Study or Research
Biol 700	Master's Thesis
Biol 800	Doctoral Dissertation
Nbio 302	Intro to Systems and Behavioral Neurobiology
Time Schedule >>
Course	Title
Biol 118	Survey of Physiology
Biol 119	Elementary Physiology Laboratory
Biol 180	Introductory Biology
Biol 200	Introductory Biology
Biol 220	Introductory Biology
Biol 240	The Urban Farm
Biol 250	Marine Biology
Biol 317	Plant Classification and Identification
Biol 350	Foundations in Physiology
Biol 355	Foundations in Molecular Cell Biology
Biol 399	Biology Internship Program
Biol 442	Mushrooms and Related Fungi
Biol 452	Vertebrate Biology
Biol 459	Developmental Neurobiology
Biol 475	Paleontology Field Methods
Biol 479	Marine Biology Research
Biol 480	Undergraduate Seminar
Biol 490	Undergraduate Seminar
Biol 491	Special Topics in Biological Science for Teachers
Biol 499	Undergraduate Research
Biol 541	Topics in Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology
Biol 551	Topics in Evolution and Systematics
Biol 551	Topics in Evolution and Systematics
Biol 590	Natural History Seminar
Biol 591	Topics in Organismal Biology
Biol 600	Independent Study or Research
Biol 700	Master's Thesis
Biol 800	Doctoral Dissertation

B.S Degree's​

Code:

ECOLOGY, EVOLUTION AND CONSERVATION BIOLOGY
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN BIOLOGY


The Ecology, Evolution, and Conservation option is 
for students interested in the origins, maintenance,
 or conservation of biological diversity. This option 
prepares students with strong system level approaches 
to problem solving, and careers in natural resources 
and conservation. A strong quantitative background is 
emphasized, and courses serve to develop skills in data 
collection, 
analysis, and communication. It is a degree option 
that allows students to explore courses offered 
through the College of Environment and Arts and Sciences.

Each option is complemented by the College of Arts
 and Sciences general educational requirements 
such as English Composition, Writing, Foreign Language,
 QSR, VLPA, and I&S.

Admission Requirements. The minimum admission 
requirements are noted below, but admission is 
non-competitive and all students who meet the 
stated requirements are admitted to the major. 
To declare the major, students need to meet 
with a Biology Adviser to complete a change of 
major form.

Ÿ Completion of BIOL 180 with a grade of 2.5 or 
better or the completion of BIOL 180, 200, 220 
with a cumulative GPA of 2.0 or better for the series.

Departmental Honors in Biology
Departmental honors allow students seeking extra 
challenges and opportunities to do so while 
completing a Biology Degree. Students may request
 an invitation to departmental honors in Biology 
once they complete their introductory biology sequence, 
and have declared a Biology Major. The request must be 
submitted 3
 quarters prior to graduation, requests made later 
will not be reviewed.

General Requirements for completing Departmental 
Honors include:
·	UW Cumulative GPA: 3.3
·	Major Cumulative GPA:  3.4
·	Complete two 400 level BIOL courses for Ad 
Hoc credit.
 (Requires signed agreement form)
·	Complete two approved Senior level BIOL 
Seminars
·	Complete  9 credits of Undergraduate 
Research 
(Research approval form required)
·	Complete a research paper based on approved 
research credits
·	Present your research work at the Undergraduate
 Research Symposium or other approved venue.

Code:

PHYSIOLOGY
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN BIOLOGY 

The Physiology option emphasizes physiological 
processes from cellular to organismal levels. 
This is an attractive option for students interested 
in the internal processes of both animals and plants
 in relation to the systems and components 
that create a synergistic working living organism. 

Each option is complemented by the College of 
Arts and Sciences general educational requirements 
such as English Composition, Writing, Foreign Language,
 QSR, VLPA, and I&S.

Admission Requirements: The minimum admission 
requirements are noted below, but admission is 
non-competitive and all students who meet the 
stated requirements are admitted to the major. 
To declare the major, students need to meet 
with a Biology Adviser to complete a change of major
 form.

Ÿ Completion of BIOL 180 with a grade of 2.5 
or better or the completion of BIOL 180, 200, 
220 with a cumulative GPA of 2.0 or better for 
the series.


Departmental Honors in Biology
Departmental honors allow students seeking 
extra challenges and opportunities to do so while
 completing a Biology Degree. Students may 
request an invitation to departmental honors
 in Biology once they complete their introductory 
biology sequence, and have declared a Biology 
Major. The request must be submitted 3 quarters
 prior to graduation, requests made later will not
 be reviewed.

General Requirements for completing Departmental 
Honors include:
·	UW Cumulative GPA: 3.3
·	Major Cumulative GPA:  3.4
·	Complete two 400 level BIOL courses for Ad
 Hoc credit. (Requires signed agreement form)
·	Complete two approved Senior level BIOL Seminars
·	Complete  9 credits of Undergraduate Research 
(Research approval form required)
·	Complete a research paper based on approved 
research credits
·	Present your research work at the Undergraduate 
Research Symposium or other approved venue.


Option Requirements. A minimum of 90 credits to be
 distributed as follows:
I.		SUPPORTING COURSES IN CHEMISTRY, 
PHYSICS, AND MATHEMATICS

1.	CHEM 120, 220*, 221 (5,5,5)
2.	CHEM 142, 152* (5,5) or 144, 154 and 
CHEM 223, 224* (4,4)  (O Chem labs are not
 required for major)
3.	CHEM 142, 152*, 162^ (5,5,5) or 144, 
154*, 164^ and CHEM 237, 238, 239 (4,4,3)  
(O Chem labs are not required for major)
	*CHEM 220 or CHEM 152 is the prerequisite 
for BIOL 200              ^CHEM 162 or164 are the 
prerequisite for CHEM 237

PHYS	114, 115	(4,4)		
Algebra based physics (labs are not 
required for the major)
PHYS	121, 122	(5,5)		
Analysis based physics

1.	MATH	124, 125	(5,5)		
Calculus with Analytic Geometry
2.	QSCI	291, 292	(5,5)		
Calculus for Biologists (May not be used for the Bio 
Chem 440 Series)
3.	QSCI 381 or STAT 311 and QSCI 482 (5,5)	
Quantitative Statistical Reasoning			
	A third quarter of calculus or a 
course in Probability and Statistics is strongly 
recommended but not required.				


II.		INTRODUCTORY BIOLOGY:	(15 credits)
BIOL 180, 200*, 220 (5,5,5)                                                
*CHEM 220,152 or 154 is a prerequisite for BIOL 200

A grade of 1.7 in Biology 180 will be required to 
progress to 200 and a grade 2.0 in 200 to progress into 220.


III.		GENETICS REQUIREMENT:	(3-5 credits)
	Select one of the following courses:				
1.	GENOME	361	(3)		Fundamentals 
of Genetics and Genomics 
2.	GENOME	371	(5)		Introductory Genetics


IV.	LAB, RESIDENCY AND 400 LEVEL BIOLOGY REQUIREMENTS: 
These requirements may overlap with other requirements 
such as breath, Natural History/biodiversity, or advanced 
electives.

·	A minimum of 15 credits must be 400 level 
through the Department of BIOLOGY. Courses such
 as Biochemistry (BIOC) and Microbiology (MICROM) 
are from other departments and will not count toward 
this requirement.
·	A minimum of 15 credits of 300 and 400 level 
Advanced BIOL Electives must be taken in residency 
at the University of Washington-Seattle campus. 
This requirement can be shared with the departmental 
400 level requirement above.
·	At least two laboratory courses, chosen from 
any course marked with an “L”, must be taken. 
A minimum of four credits of 499 (please read end 
note about approval process) can substitute for one 
laboratory.


V.	BREADTH REQUIREMENT:
Biologists often concentrate on one level of 
biological organization, but it is important to 
know about broader biological topics that can 
be studied. To broaden your perspective, 
you are required to take at least one biologically
 based course that provides breadth outside 
your area of concentration.

	Select one of the following courses	(3 credits)
	BIOL	315	(3)		Biological Impacts of Climate 
Change
	BIOL	354	(3)		Foundations in Evolution and 
Systematics
	BIOL	356L	(3)		Foundations in Ecology
	BIOL/PSYCH	#409	(5)		Sociobiology 
	BIOL/GENOME	#414	(5)		Molecular Evolution 
	BIOL	415	(3)		Evolution and Development
	BIOL	447L	(5)		Greening the Earth
	BIOL	469	(3)		Evolution and Medicine*
	BIOL	472L	(5)		Community Ecology
	BIOL	473	(3)		Limnology
	BIOL	476L	(5)		Conservation Biology
	BIOL	478	(3)		Topics in Sustainable Fisheries
	BIOL	480L	(4)		Field Ecology
	BIOL	481L	(5)		Experimental Ecology and 
Evolution
	FISH	#444	(5)		Conservation Genetics 


VI.	NATURAL HISTORY/BIODIVERSITY 

Natural History is the study of the characteristics, 
life cycles, and biological background of some 
taxonomic group.* Biodiversity deals with a whole
 suite of organisms that inhabits a particular 
environment.*These classes are often field oriented, 
in which students both observe or analyze both 
the organisms and their interactions in the natural 
habitats.
	Select one of the following courses:	
(3 credits min)
	BIOL	280	(4)		History of Life
	BIOL/FISH	311L	(3/5)		Biology of 
Fishes
	BIOL	317L	(5)		Plant Identification 
and 
Classification
	BIOL	325	(3)		Tree of Life
	BIOL	331	(3)		Landscape Plant
 Recognition
	BIOL 	430L	(5)		Marine Zoology (FHL)
	BIOL 	432L	(9)		Marine Invertebrate
 Zoology 
(FHL)
	BIOL	433L	(5)		Marine Ecology
	BIOL	434L	(5)		Invertebrate
 Zoology
	BIOL 	440L	(5)		General Mycology
	BIOL	441L	(5)		Morphology and 
Anatomy of
 Land Plants
	BIOL 	442L	(5)		Mushrooms and 
Related Fungi
	BIOL 	443L	(5)		Evolution of Mammals
 and their 
Ancestors
	BIOL 	444L	(5)		Natural History of Birds
	BIOL 	445L	(5)		Marine Botany (FHL)
	BIOL 	446L	(5)		Biology of Algae
	BIOL/ESS	450/452L	(5)		Vertebrate 
Paleontology
	BIOL/ESS	451L	(5)		Invertebrate 
Paleontology
	BIOL 	452L	(5)		Vertebrate Zoology
	BIOL 	453L	(5)		Comparative 
Vertebrate 
Anatomy*
	BIOL 	454/455L	(3/3)		Entomology/
Entomology 
Lab
	BIOL 	456L	(5)		Vegetation of Western 
Washington
	ESRM	435/436L	(3/2)		Forest 
Entomology
	ESRM	452L	(3)		Field Ornithology
	ESRM 	456	(3)		Biology and 
Conservation of Birds
	FISH 	450L	(3/5)		Salmonoid 
Behavior and 
Life History
	FISH 	475L	(5)		Marine 
Mammalogy

VII.	ADVANCED BIOLOGY ELECTIVES 	
(31 credits)
·	You are required to have a minimum
 of 31 credits from the selection below.
·	Within these 31 credits students must
 select two Advanced Physiology elective courses 
and one Physiology Lab course:
Advanced Physiology Elective – select two courses:					
	BIOL 	360	(3)		Cellular Anatomy
	BIOL	403L	(5)		Physiological Mechanisms
 of Histology
	BIOL	404	(3)		Animal Physiology: 
Cellular Aspects
	BIOL	418	(3)		Biological Clocks and
 Rhythms
	BIOL/ESRM	424/478L	(5)		Plant Eco-
Physiology
	BIOL	425	(3)		Adv. Plant Physiology &
 Development
	BIOL 	427	(4)		Biomechanics
	BIOL	428	(3)		Environmental Sensory 
Processes and Mechanics
	BIOL 	453L	(5)		Comparative Vertebrate 
Anatomy*
	BIOL	457	(3)		Chemical Communication
	BIOL	460	(3)		Mammalian Physiology
	BIOL 	461	(3)		Neurobiology
	BIOL 	462	(3)		Advanced Animal Physiology
	BIOL 	465	(3)		Comparative Endocrinology
	BIOL 	468	(3)		Medical Physiology


BIOL	302L	(4)		Laboratory Techniques in Cell 
and Molecular
BIOL	400L	(4)		Experiments in Molecular Biology 
BIOL	403L	(5)		Physiological Mechanisms of 
Histology
BIOL	412L	(4)		Developmental Lab
BIOL/ESRM	424/478L	(5)		Plant Eco-Physiology
BIOL	426L	(3)		Adv. Plant Physiology & 
Development Lab 
BIOL 	453L	(5)		Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy*
BIOL	463L	(3)		Adv. Animal Physiology Lab 
BIOL	466	(3)		Pathobiology of Emerging Diseases
BIOC	426L	(4)		Basic Techniques in Biochemistry
FISH	324L	(5)		Aquatic Animal Physiology and
 Reproduction 
Various DEPT	499L	(4)		Undergraduate 
Research (Must be Approved, see notes)**



	BIOL	300	(4)		Introduction to Neuroscience
	BIOL	305	(3)		Science Communication: Video 
Storytelling in Biology

	BIOL	350	(3)		Foundations in Physiology
	BIOL	355	(3)		Foundations in Molecular Cell Biology
	BIOL	390	(1)		Undergraduate Internship Seminar
	BIOL	399	(3-5)		Biology Internship Program 
	BIOL	401	(3)		Advanced Cell Biology
	BIOL /PSYCH	408	(4)		Mechanisms in Animal 
Behavior
	BIOL	411	(4)		Developmental Biology
	BIOL	416	(3)		Molecular Genetics of  Plant Development
	BIOL	422	(3)		Physiology of Plant Behavior
	BIOL	423	(3)		Marine Physiological Ecology
	BIOL	425	(3)		Adv. Plant Physiology & Development
	BIOL/ PSYCH	#458	(4)		Behavioral Genetics 
	BIOL	#459	(3)		Developmental Neurobiology 
	BIOL	469	(3)		Evolution and Medicine*
	BIOL	483	(1-3)		Sr. Seminar in Paleobiology
	BIOL	#485	(1-3)		Sr. Seminar in Cell, Molecular and 
Developmental Biology 
	BIOL	488	(1-3)		Sr. Seminar Special Topics
 in Physiology
	BIOL	491	(1-5)		Special Topics for Biology 
Teachers
	BIOL	492	(2)		The Teaching of Biology
	BIOL	496	(5)		Peer TA’s in Biology1

       Continued on next page…

VII.	ADVANCED BIOLOGY ELECTIVES….. continued:

	BIOC 	405	(3)		Introduction to 
Biochemistry
	BIOC	406	(3)		Introduction to 
Biochemistry
	BIOC 	440	(4)		Biochemistry
	BIOC	441	(4)		Biochemistry
	BIOC	442	(4)		Biochemistry
	B STR	301	(4)		General Anatomy 
(restricted registration)
	FISH	#441L	(3/5)		Integrative 
Environmental Physiology
	NUTR/EPI	405	(3)		Physical 
Activity in Health and Disease 
	PSYCH	421	(5)		Neural Basis of Behavior

	
Notes:  
·	Many of the elective courses have pre-
requisite courses; in planning your course selection, 
be sure to include the necessary pre-requisites!
·	Undergraduate Research:  Ten credits 
is the maximum number of Undergraduate Research
 credits that can be used as Upper Division Electives.
499 credit must be approved by petition; see a
 Biology Adviser for a Research Approval Form. 
Four of these 10 credits may be used to fulfill 
1 of the 2 lab requirements provided a minimum 
of 4 credits are completed on the same project.
·	* BIOL 453 and BIOL 469 can count for 
either Natural History/Biodiversity/Breadth OR 
toward your Adv Electives including.      
It will not count as both.
·	1 - This class is regulated and administered 
by professor permission. To Peer TA an 
introductory course, an application and a peer 
TA training class is required. For other courses,
 prior experience with the class and permission 
of acting instructor is necessary for enrollment.
·	 (FHL) = indicates course taught at Friday
 Harbor Labs. 
·	For other classes of interest that are
 not listed, please contact an advisor about 
the possibility of petitioning. The course will 
need to be at the 300 to 400 level and have 
a biological basis to be considered.

Code:

MOLECULAR, CELLULAR AND DEVELOPMENTAL
 BIOLOGY
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN BIOLOGY 

The Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental 
Biology option is for students seeking undergraduate
 training in the molecular, genetic, and cellular 
basis of life. These topics will assist students
 in understanding the complex biological processes
 that underlie cellular function, disease processes
 and embryonic development.

Each option is complemented by the College
 of Arts and Sciences general educational 
requirements such as English Composition,
 Writing, Foreign Language, QSR, VLPA, and I&S.

Admission Requirements: The minimum 
admission requirements are noted below,
 but admission is non-competitive and
 all students who meet the stated
 requirements are admitted to the major. 
To declare the major, students need 
to meet with a Biology Adviser to complete
 a change of major form.

Ÿ Completion of BIOL 180 with a grade of
 2.5 or better or the completion of BIOL 
180, 200, 220 with a cumulative GPA of 
2.0 or better for the series.


Departmental Honors in Biology
Departmental honors allow students
 seeking extra challenges and opportunities
 to do so while completing a Biology 
Degree. Students may request an invitation
 to departmental honors in Biology once 
they complete their introductory biology 
sequence, and have declared a Biology 
Major. The request must be submitted 3 
quarters prior to graduation, requests made
 later will not be reviewed.

General Requirements for completing 
Departmental Honors include:
·	UW Cumulative GPA: 3.3
·	Major Cumulative GPA:  3.4
·	Complete two 400 level BIOL courses
 for Ad Hoc credit. (Requires signed 
agreement form)
·	Complete two approved Senior level
 BIOL Seminars
·	Complete  9 credits of Undergraduate 
Research (Research approval form required)
·	Complete a research paper based on
 approved research credits
·	Present your research work at the 
Undergraduate Research Symposium or other
 approved venue.

See an Adviser for more details.
Option Requirements. A minimum of 93 credits 
to be distributed as follows:

I.	SUPPORTING COURSES IN CHEMISTRY, 
PHYSICS, AND MATHEMATICS:
Chemistry (Select one option):	
(18-26 credits)					
1.	CHEM 142, 152 (5,5) or 144, 154 
(5,5) and CHEM 223, 224# (4,4)				
2.	CHEM 142, 152, 162* (5,5,5) or 144.
 154, 164 (5,5,5) and CHEM 237, 238, 239 
(4,4,3)				
	*CHEM 220 or CHEM 152 is the 
prerequisite
 for BIOL 200              ^CHEM 162 or164 are
 the prerequisite for CHEM 237				
Physics (Select one option):	(8-10 credits)					
1.	PHYS	114, 115	(4,4)		Algebra
 based physics (labs are not required for the 
major)
2.	PHYS	121, 122	(5,5)		Analysis
 based physics
Mathematics (Select one option):	(10 credits)					
1.	MATH	124, 125	(5,5)		Calculus with
 Analytic Geometry
2.	QSCI	291, 292	(5,5)		Calculus for 
Biologists (May not be used for the Bio Chem 
440 Series)
3.	QSCI 381 or STAT 311 and QSCI 482 (5,5)
	Quantitative Statistical Reasoning			
	A third quarter of calculus or a course in 
Probability and Statistics is strongly recommended
 but not required.				


II.		INTRODUCTORY BIOLOGY:	
(15 credits)
BIOL 180, 200*, 220 (5,5,5)                                                  
*CHEM 220,152 or 154 is a prerequisite for BIOL 
200

A grade of 1.7 in Biology 180 will be required 
to progress to 200 and a grade 2.0 in 200 to 
progress into 220.


III.		GENETICS REQUIREMENT:	
(3-5 credits)
	Select one of the following courses:				
1.	GENOME	361	(3)		Fundamentals 
of Genetics and Genomics 
2.	GENOME	371	(5)		Introductory
 Genetics


IV.	LAB, RESIDENCY AND 400 LEVEL BIOLOGY
 REQUIREMENTS: 
These requirements may overlap with other 
requirements such as breath, Natural History/
biodiversity, or advanced electives.

·	A minimum of 15 credits must be 400
 level through the Department of BIOLOGY. 
Courses such as Biochemistry (BIOC) and 
Microbiology (MICROM) are from other departments
 and will not count toward this requirement.
·	A minimum of 15 credits of 300 and 400
 level Advanced BIOL Electives must be taken 
in residency at the University of Washington-
Seattle campus. This requirement can be 
shared with the departmental 400 level 
requirement above.
·	At least two laboratory courses, 
chosen from any course marked with an “L”, 
must be taken. A minimum of four credits of 
499 (please read end note about approval 
process) can substitute for one laboratory.
V.	  BREADTH REQUIREMENT:
Biologists often concentrate on one level of 
biological organization, but it is important to
 know about broader biological topics that 
can be studied. To broaden your perspective, 
you are required to take at least one 
biologically based course that provides breadth
 outside your area of concentration.

	Select one of the following courses :	
(3 credits minimum)
	BIOL	315	(3)		Biological Impacts 
of Climate Change
	BIOL	354	(3)		Foundations in
 Evolution and Systematics
	BIOL	356L	(3)		Foundations in 
Ecology
	BIOL/PSYCH	#409	(5)		
Sociobiology 
	BIOL	#429	(4)		Models in Biology 
	BIOL	447L	(5)		Greening of the Earth 
	BIOL	472L	(5)		Community Ecology
	BIOL	473	(3)		Limnology
	BIOL	476L	(5)		Conservation Biology
	BIOL	478	(3)		Topics in Sustainable
 Fisheries
	BIOL	480L	(4)		Field Ecology
	BIOL	481L	(5)		Experimental Ecology
 and Evolution


VI.	NATURAL HISTORY/BIODIVERSITY 

Natural History is the study of the characteristics, 
life cycles, and biological background of some 
taxonomic group.* Biodiversity deals with a whole
 suite of organisms that inhabits a particular 
environment.*These classes are often field oriented,
 in which students both observe or analyze both 
the organisms and their interactions in the natural 
habitats.

	Select one of the following courses:	
(3 credits minimum)
	BIOL	280	(4)		History of Life
	BIOL/FISH	311L	(3/5)		Biology of 
Fishes
	BIOL	317L	(5)		Plant Identification
 and Classification
	BIOL	325	(3)		Tree of Life
	BIOL	331	(3)		Landscape Plant 
Recognition
	BIOL 	430L	(5)		Marine Zoology 
(FHL)
	BIOL 	432L	(9)		Marine Invertebrate
 Zoology (FHL)
	BIOL	433L	(5)		Marine Ecology
	BIOL	434L	(5)		Invertebrate Zoology
	BIOL 	440L	(5)		General Mycology
	BIOL	441L	(5)		Morphology and 
Anatomy of Land Plants
	BIOL 	442L	(5)		Mushrooms and 
Related Fungi
	BIOL 	443L	(5)		Evolution of Mammals
 and their Ancestors
	BIOL 	444L	(5)		Natural History of Birds
	BIOL 	445L	(5)		Marine Botany (FHL)
	BIOL 	446L	(5)		Biology of Algae
	BIOL/ESS	450/452L	(5)		Vertebrate
 Paleontology
	BIOL/ESS	451L	(5)		Invertebrate 
Paleontology
	BIOL 	452L	(5)		Vertebrate Zoology
	BIOL 	453L	(5)		Comparative Vertebrate
 Anatomy
	BIOL 	454/455L	(3/3)		Entomology
/Entomology Lab
	BIOL 	456L	(5)		Vegetation of Western 
Washington
	ESRM	435/436L	(3/2)		Forest 
Entomology
	ESRM	452L	(3)		Field Ornithology
	ESRM 	456	(3)		Biology and
 Conservation of Birds
	FISH 	450L	(3/5)		Salmonoid Behavior 
and Life History
	FISH 	475L	(5)		Marine Mammalogy



VII.	ADVANCED BIOLOGY ELECTIVES:	
(31 credits)
·	You are required to have a minimum of
 31 credits from the selection below.
·	Within these 31 credits students must 
select one Biochemistry option, one Developmental
 Biology course, one Molecular, Cellular,
 Developmental Laboratory:

Biochemistry – select one option:					
1.	BIOC	440, 441	(4,4)		Biochemistry
2.	BIOC	405, 406	(3,3)		Introduction 
to Biochemistry
Developmental Biology Courses – select one 
course:					
	BIOL 	411	(4)		Developmental 
Biology
	BIOL	413L	(4)		Molecular  
Development of Genetics*
	BIOL	415	(3)		Evolution and 
Development
	BIOL	416	(3)		Molecular Genetics 
of Plant Development
	BIOL	459	(3)		Developmental
 Neurobiology
Molecular, Cellular, Developmental Lab requirement –
 select one course:					
	BIOL	302L	(4)		Laboratory Techniques 
in Cell and Molecular
	BIOL 	400L	(4)		Experiments in 
Molecular Biology
	BIOL	403L	(5)		Physiological Mechanisms
 of Histology
	BIOL	412L	(4)		Developmental Lab
	BIOL	413L	(4)		Molecular  Development 
of Genetics*
	BIOL	426L	(3)		Adv. Plant Physiology
 & Development Lab 
	BIOL 	463L	(3)		Adv. Animal Physiology
 Lab 
	BIOC 	426L	(4)		Basic Techniques in
 Biochemistry 
	MICROM	402L	(3)		Fundamentals
 of Microbiology Lab
	MICROM	431L	(3)		Prokaryotic 
Recombinant DNA Techniques
	Various DEPT	499L	(4)		
Undergraduate Research (Must be Approved, see
 notes)**
Electives: All remaining upper division electives
 may be chosen from the list below, or from courses
 listed above as Advanced Electives, or from the
 Natural History/Biodiversity list.					
	BIOL	300	(4)		Introduction to
 Neuroscience
	BIOL	305	(3)		Science Communication:
 Video Storytelling in Biology
	BIOL	350	(3)		Foundations in 
Physiology
	BIOL	355	(3)		Foundations in 
Molecular Cell Biology
	BIOL 	380	(3)		Biomedical Advances
 and Society
	BIOL	390	(1)		Internship Seminar
	BIOL	399	(3-5)		Biology Internship
 Program
	BIOL	401	(3)		Advanced Cell Biology
	BIOL	404	(3)		Animal Physiology: 
Cellular Aspects 
	BIOL	405	(3)		Cell and Molecular
 Biology of Human Disease
	BIOL	408	(4)		Mechanisms of 
Animal Behavior
	BIOL	418	(3)		Biological Clocks 
and Rhythms
	BIOL/GENOME	414	(5)		
Molecular Evolution
	BIOL	422	(3)		Physiology of 
Plant Behavior
	BIOL/ESRM	424/478L	(5)		Plant 
Eco-Physiology
	BIOL	425	(3)		Adv. Plant 
Physiology & Development
	BIOL	428	(3)		Environmental

 Sensory Processes and Mechanics
	BIOL	449	(5)		Applied Phylogenetics
	BIOL	457	(3)		Chemical Communication
	BIOL	460	(3)		Mammalian Physiology
	BIOL	461	(3)		Neurobiology
	BIOL	462	(3)		Advanced Animal Physiology
	BIOL	465	(3)		Comparative Endocrinology
	BIOL	466	(3)		Pathobiology of Emerging Diseases
	BIOL	468	(3)		Medical Physiology
	BIOL	469	(3)		Evolution and Medicine

      Continued on next page…

VII.	ADVANCED MCD ELECTIVES, continued:

	BIOL	485	(1-3)		Sr. Seminar in 
Molecular, Cellular & Developmental Biol
	BIOL	488	(1-3)		Sr. Seminar in 
Physiology 
	BIOL	491	(1-5)		Special Topics 
for Biology Teachers
	BIOL	492	(2)		The Teaching 
of Biology
	BIOL	496	(5)		Peer TAs in 
Biology1
	BIOC	442	(4)		Biochemistry
	B STR	301	(4)		General Anatomy 
(restricted registration)
	FISH	324L	(3/5)		Aquatic Animal
 Physiology and Reproduction 
	GENOME	372	(5)		Gene Function
	GENOME	453	(3)		Genetics of 
the Evolutionary Process
	GENOME	465	(4)		Advanced
 Human Genetics
	GENOME	466	(3)		Cancer Genetics
	GENOME	475	(3)		Debates in
 Genetics
	GENOME	490	(2)		Genetics 
Undergraduate Seminar
	IMMUN	441	(4)		Introduction 
to Immunology  (formerly MICROM 441)
	MICROM	410	(3)		Fundamentals 
of Microbiology I
	MICROM	#412	(3)		Fundamentals
 of General Microbiology III
	MICROM	442	(3)		Medical Bacteriology
	MICROM	445	(2)		Medical Virology
	MICROM	450	(3)		Molecular 
Biology of Viruses
	PSYCH	421	(5)		Neural Basis
 of Behavior


Notes:  
·	Many of the elective courses have pre-
requisite courses; in planning your course selection
, be sure to include the necessary pre-requisites!
·	Undergraduate Research: Ten credits is 
the maximum number of Undergraduate Research 
credits that can be used as Upper Division Electives. 
499 credit must be approved by petition; see a 
Biology Adviser for a Research Approval Form.
 Four of these 10 credits may be used to fulfill 
1 of the 2 lab requirements provided a minimum 
of 4 credits are completed on the same project.
·	* Courses listed in more than one category
 can only count for one requirement. 
·	 (FHL) = indicates course taught at Friday
 Harbor Labs. 
·	1 - This class is regulated and administered
 by professor permission. To Peer TA an introductory
 course, an application and a peer TA training class
 is required. For other courses, prior experience
 with the class and permission of acting instructor
 is necessary for enrollment.
·	For other classes of interest that are not
 listed, please contact an advisor about the
 possibility of petitioning. The course will need 
to be at the 300 to 400 level and have a biological
 basis to be considered.

​

Code:

GENERAL BIOLOGY
BACHELOR OF ARTS IN BIOLOGY 

The BA Degree with an Option in General 
Biology is designed for students who desire 
a breadth of training throughout their 
program of study. Compared to the BS 
degree, the BA does not require physics or
 a third quarter of organic chemistry.  
This is an ideal program for students wishing 
to get the scope of the biological sciences
 without some of the supporting sequences.

Each option is complemented by the College 
of Arts and Sciences general educational 
requirements such as English Composition, 
Writing, Foreign Language, QSR, VLPA, and I&S.

Admission Requirements: The minimum 
admission requirements are noted below,
 but admission is non-competitive and all 
students who meet the stated requirements
 are admitted to the major. To declare the 
major, students need to meet with a Biology
 Adviser to complete a change of major form. 

Ÿ Completion of BIOL 180 with a grade of 2.5 
or better or the completion of BIOL 180, 200,
 220 with a cumulative GPA of 2.0 or better 
for the series.

Departmental Honors in Biology
Departmental honors allow students 
seeking extra challenges and opportunities
 to do so while completing a Biology Degree.
 Students may request an invitation to 
departmental honors in Biology once they 
complete their introductory biology sequence, 
and have declared a Biology Major. The 
request must be submitted 3 quarters prior 
to graduation, requests made later will not be 
reviewed.

General Requirements for completing
 Departmental Honors include:
·	UW Cumulative GPA: 3.3
·	Major Cumulative GPA:  3.4
·	Complete two 400 level BIOL 
courses for Ad Hoc credit. (Requires
 signed agreement form)
·	Complete two approved Senior 
level BIOL Seminars
·	Complete  9 credits of Undergraduate
 Research (Research approval form required)
·	Complete a research paper based on
 approved research credits
·	Present your research work at the 
Undergraduate Research Symposium or 
other approved venue.

See an Adviser for more details.
Major Requirements. A minimum of 90 credits 
to be distributed as follows:
I.	SUPPORTING COURSES IN CHEMISTRY, 
AND MATHEMATICS:
Chemistry (Select one option):	(15-23 credits)					
1.	CHEM 120, 220*, 221 (5,5,5)				
2.	CHEM 142, 152* (5,5) or 144, 154 and 
CHEM 223, 224* (4,4)  (O Chem labs are not
 required for major)				
3.	CHEM 142, 152*, 162^ (5,5,5) or 144, 
154*, 164^ and CHEM 237, 238 (4,4)  (O 
Chem labs are not required for major)				
	*CHEM 220 or CHEM 152 is the 
prerequisite 
for BIOL 200              ^CHEM 162 or164 are t
he prerequisite for CHEM 237				
Mathematics (Select one option):	(10 credits)					
1.	MATH	124, 125	(5,5)		Calculus 
with Analytic Geometry
2.	QSCI	291, 292	(5,5)		Calculus for 
Biologists (May not be used for the Bio Chem 440 
Series)
3.	QSCI 381 or STAT 311 and QSCI 482 (5,5)	
Quantitative Statistical Reasoning			
	A third quarter of calculus or a course in 
Probability and Statistics is strongly recommended.				


II.	INTRODUCTORY BIOLOGY:	(15 credits)
BIOL 180, 200*, 220 (5,5,5)                                                 
 *CHEM 220,152 or 154 is a prerequisite for BIOL 200

A grade of 1.7 in Biology 180 will be required to
 progress to 200 and a grade 2.0 in 200 to progress
 into 220.


III.		GENETICS REQUIREMENT:	
(3-5 credits)
	Select one of the following courses:				
1.	GENOME	361	(3)		
Fundamentals of Genetics and Genomics 
2.	GENOME	371	(5)		
Introductory Genetics
3.	BIOL/FISH	340	(5)		
Genetics and Molecular Ecology


IV.	LAB, RESIDENCY AND 400 LEVEL
 BIOLOGY REQUIREMENTS: These requirements 
may overlap with other requirements such as 
breath, Natural History/biodiversity, or advanced electives.

·	A minimum of 15 credits must be 400 level 
through the Department of BIOLOGY. Courses such
 as Biochemistry (BIOC) and Microbiology (MICROM) 
are from other departments and will not count toward
 this requirement.
·	A minimum of 15 credits of 300 and 400 level 
Advanced BIOL Electives must be taken in residency
 at the University of Washington-Seattle campus. This
 requirement can be shared with the departmental 400
 level requirement above.
·	At least two laboratory courses, chosen from any 
course marked with an “L”, must be taken. A minimum 
of four credits of 499 (please read end note about approval
 process) can substitute for one laboratory.

V.		TAXONOMIC BREADTH REQUIREMENT:
	
Biologists often concentrate on one level of biological 
organization, but it is important to know about broader 
biological topics that can be studied. To broaden your 
perspective, you are required to take at least one 
biologically based course that provides taxonomic breadth
 outside the Animalia Kingdom; you must take one asterisked
 (*) course (from any of the areas on this handout) which
 can be shared with either your Natural History/Biodiversity 
requirement or an advanced elective.  

VI.		NATURAL HISTORY/BIODIVERSITY 
	Natural History is the study of the characteristics, life
 cycles, and biological background of some taxonomic group. 
Biodiversity deals with a whole suite of organisms that 
a particular environment.*
These classes are often field oriented,
 in which students both observe or analyze
both the organisms and their interactions in 
the natural habitats.
	
Select one course:	(3 credits minimum)
	BIOL	280	(4)		
The History of Life
	BIOL/FISH	311L	(3/5)		
Biology of Fishes
	BIOL	317L	(5)		
Plant Identification and Classification*
	BIOL 	325	(3)		
Tree of Life*
	BIOL	331	(3)		
Landscape Plant Recognition*
	BIOL 	430L	(5)		
Marine Zoology (FHL)
	BIOL 	432L	(5)		Marine Invertebrate
 Zoology
 (FHL)
	BIOL	433L	(5)		Marine Ecology
	BIOL	434L	(5)		Invertebrate Zoology
	BIOL 	440L	(5)		General Mycology*
	BIOL	441L	(5)		Morphology and Anatomy of
 Land Plants*
	BIOL 	442L	(5)		Mushrooms and Related Fungi*
	BIOL 	443L	(5)		Evolution of Mammals and 
Their Ancestors
	BIOL 	444L	(5)		Natural History of Birds
	BIOL 	445L	(5)		Marine Botany* (FHL)
	BIOL 	446L	(5)		Biology of Algae*
	BIOL/ESS	450/452L	(5)		Vertebrate 
Paleontology
	BIOL/ESS	451L	(5)		Invertebrate
 Paleontology
	BIOL 	452L	(5)		Vertebrate Zoology
	BIOL 	453L	(5)		Comparative Vertebrate 
Anatomy
	BIOL 	454/455L	(3/3L)		Entomology/
Entomology Lab
	BIOL 	456L	(5)		Vegetation of Western
 Washington*
	ESRM 	435/436L	(3/2L)		Forest 
Entomology/Forest Entomology Lab
	ESRM 	452L	(3)		Field Ornithology
	ESRM	456	(3)		Biology and Conservation
 of Birds
	FISH 	450L	(3/5L)		Salmonoid Behavior
 and Life History
	FISH 	475L	(5)		Marine Mammalogy


VII.	ADVANCED BIOLOGY ELECTIVES:	
(42 credits)
·	You are required to have a minimum 
of 42 credits 
from the selection below.
·	Within these 42 credits students must
 select one
 course from three of the five areas:

1. Biology and Society Course Electives:					
	BIOL	305	(3)		Science 
Communication: 
Video Storytelling in Biology
	BIOL	390	(1)		Undergraduate 
Internship Seminar
	BIOL	399	(3-5)		Biology
 Internship
Program
	BIOL/PSYCH	458	(4)		
Behavioral Genetics 
	BIOL	491	(1-5)		Special Topics
 for Biology Teachers
	BIOL	492	(2)		The Teaching
 of Biology
	BIOL	496	(1-5)		Peer TAs in 
Biology1
	ANTH	458	(5)		Ethnobiology: 
Plants, Animals, People*
	GENOME	454	(4)		Origin of 
Genetics 
	GENOME	475	(3)		Debates 
in Genetics
	BH	402	(5)		Ethical 
Theory 
	BH	404	(5)		Metaethical
 Theory 
	BH	411	(3)		Bioethics
	BH	417	(3)		Disease in 
History
	PHIL	481	(5)		Philosophy 
of Biology
	PSYCH/GWSS	357	(5)		
Psychobiology of Women (Registration is 
restricted
 through Psych)
	PSYCH	416	(5)		Animal
 Communication

      Continued on next page…
VII.	ADVANCED BIOLOGY ELECTIVES, 
continued:

2. Ecology and Evolution/Systematics 
Course
 Electives: 					
	BIOL	315	(3)		Biological
 Impacts 
of Climate Change
	BIOL	354	(3)		Foundations
 in
 Evolution and Systematics
	BIOL	356L	(3)		Foundations
 in 
Ecology
	BIOL/PSYCH	#408	(4)		
Mechanisms of Animal Behavior 
	BIOL/PSYCH	409	(5)		
Sociobiology
	BIOL/GENOME	414	(5)		
Molecular Evolution
	BIOL	415	(3)		
Evolution and
 Development
	BIOL	423	(3)		
Marine Ecological
 Processes
	BIOL/ESRM	424/478L	(5)		
Plant Eco-Physiology*
	BIOL	433L	(5)		Marine
 Ecology
	BIOL	447L	(5)		Greening
 the Earth*
	BIOL	449	(3)		Applied 
Phylogenetics
	BIOL	469	(3)		Evolution 
and Medicine
	BIOL	471L	(5)		Plant Ecology*
	BIOL	472L	(5)		Community 
Ecology
	BIOL/FISH	473/474L	(3/2)		
Limnology 
& Lab
	BIOL	476L	(5)		Conservation 
Biology
	BIOL/FISH/ENVIR	478	(3-9)		
Topics
 in Sustainable Fisheries 
	BIOL	480L	(4)		Field Ecology
	BIOL	481L	(5)		Experimental 
Ecology and Evolution
	BIOL	482L	(2-5)		Advanced 
Experimental
 Ecology and Evolution
	BIOL	483	(1-3)		Sr. Seminar
 in
 Paleobiology
	BIOL	484	(1-3)		Sr. Seminar in
 Evolution & Systematics
	BIOL	486	(1-3)		Sr. Seminar in 
Ecology
	BIOL	487	(1-3)		Sr. Seminar in 
Conservation Biology
	BIOL	489	(1-3)		Sr. Seminar in 
Plant Biology
	ESRM	400	(3)		Natural
 Resource 
Conflict Management
	ESRM	409	(5)		Soil Ecology
	ESRM	450	(5)		Wildlife 
Ecology 
and Conservation
	ESRM	458	(5)		Mgmnt of
 Endangered,
 Thr., and Sens. Species
	ESRM	470	(5)		Natural Resource 
Policy and Planning
	ESS	450	(3)		Paleobiology
	FISH	444L	(5)		Conservation Genetics


3. Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology 
Course Electives:					
	BIOL	302L	(4)		Laboratory Techniques
 in Cell and Molecular
	BIOL	355	(3)		Foundations in 
Molecular Cell Biology
	BIOL 	380	(3)		Biomedical Advances
 and Society
	BIOL	401	(3)		Advanced Cell 
Biology
	BIOL	400L	(4)		Experiments in 
Cellular
 Biology
	BIOL	405	(3)		Cell and Molecular 
Biology of Human Disease
	BIOL	411	(4)		Developmental 
Biology
	BIOL	412L	(4)		Developmental
 Biology
 Lab
	BIOL	413L	(4)		Molecular 
 Development
 of Genetics
	BIOL/GENOME	414	(5)		Molecular 
Evolution
	BIOL	416	(3)		Molecular Genetics 
of Plant Development*
	BIOL	457	(3)		Chemical 
Communication
	BIOL	459	(3)		Developmental 
Neurobiology
	BIOL	485	(1-3)		Sr. Seminar in 
Molecular, Cellular & Dev. Biol.
	BIOC	405	(3)		Introduction to
 Biochemistry
	BIOC	406	(3)		Introduction to
 Biochemistry

      Continued on next page…

VII.	ADVANCED BIOLOGY ELECTIVES, 
continued:
	BIOC	426L	(4)		Basic Techniques
 in Biochemistry 
	BIOC	440	(4)		Biochemistry
	BIOC	441	(4)		Biochemistry
	BIOC	442	(4)		Biochemistry
	GENOME	372	(5)		Gene 
Structure
 and Function
	GENOME	453	(3)		Genetics 
of the 
Evolutionary Process
	GENOME	454	(4)		Origin of 
Genetics
	GENOME	465	(4)		Advanced 
Human
 Genetics
	GENOME	466	(3)		Cancer 
Genetics
	GENOME	490	(2)		Genetics 
Undergraduate Seminar
	IMMUN	441	(4)		Introduction 
to Immunology (formerly MICROM)
	MICROM	301/302L	(3)		
General 
Microbiology*/ General Microbiology Lab
	MICROM	402L	(3)		
Fundamentals
 of General Microbiology Lab
	MICROM	410	(3)		
Fundamentals
 of Microbiology I
	MICROM	412	(3)		
Fundamentals 
of General Microbiology III
	MICROM	431L	(3)		
Prokaryotic 
Recombinant DNA Techniques
	MICROM	435	(3)		
Microbial
 Ecology 
	MICROM	442	(3)		
Medical
 Bacteriology
	MICROM	445	(3)		
Medical 
Virology
	MICROM	450	(3)		
Molecular
 Biology of Viruses


4. Physiology Course Electives–.					
	BIOL	300	(4)		Introduction 
to Neuroscience
	BIOL	350	(3)		Foundations
 in Physiology
	BIOL 	360	(3)		Cellular Anatomy
	BIOL	403L	(5)		Physiological 
Mechanisms of Histology
	BIOL	404	(3)		Animal Physiology:
 Cellular Aspects
	BIOL	408	(4)		Mechanisms of 
Animal Behavior
	BIOL	418	(3)		Circadian Rhythms
	BIOL	422	(3)		Physiology of Plant 
Behavior*
	BIOL/ESRM	424/478L	(5)		Plant 
Eco-Physiology*
	BIOL	425	(3)		Adv. Plant Physiology
 and Development*
	BIOL	426L	(3)		Adv. Plant Physiology 
and Development Lab*
	BIOL 	427	(4)		Biomechanics
	BIOL	428	(3)		Environmental Sensory 
Processes and Mechanics
	BIOL 	459	(3)		Developmental 
Neurobiology
	BIOL	460	(3)		Mammalian 
Physiology
	BIOL 	461	(3)		Neurobiology
	BIOL 	462	(3)		Advanced 
Animal Physiology
	BIOL	463L	(3)		Advanced 
Animal Physiology Lab
	BIOL 	465	(3)		Comparative 
Endocrinology
	BIOL	466	(3)		Pathobiology of
Emerging Diseases
	BIOL 	468	(3)		Medical Physiology
	BIOL	488	(1-3)		Sr. Seminar in
 Physiology
	B STR	301	(4)		General Anatomy 
(restricted registration)
	FISH	324	(3/5L)		Aquatic
 Animal Physiology and Reproduction 
	FISH	441	(3/5L)		Environmental
 Physiology
	NUTR	300	(3)		Introduction to 
Nutrition
	NUTR/EPI	#405	(3)		Physical Activity 
in Health and Disease 
	PSYCH	421	(5)		Neural Basis 
of Behavior


5. Natural History/Biodiversity
Any additional course(s) from the Natural History
/Biodiversity list after the initial requirement
 is completed.


      Continued on next page…

Notes:  
·	Many of the elective courses have pre-
requisite courses; in planning your course 
selection, be sure and map out corresponding 
schedules that include the necessary pre-
requisites!
·	Undergraduate Research:  Ten credits
 is the maximum number of Undergraduate 
Research credits that can be used as Upper 
Division Electives. Any 499 credit may be 
approved by petition; see a Biology Adviser
 for a Research Approval Form. Four of 
these 10 credits may be used to fulfill 1 
of the 2 lab requirements provided a minimum 
of 4 credits are completed on the same project.
·	Courses listed in more than one 
category can only count for one requirement. 
·	A lab taken for the Natural History 
Biodiversity requirement may count for one 
of the two required labs but the credits 
do not count as Advanced Biology Electives
 unless the lab credits are a separate class.
·	* Indicates course with non-animal 
emphasis to meet taxonomic breadth 
requirement of the General Biology Option.
·	(FHL) = indicates course taught at
 Friday Harbor Labs.
·	1 - This class is regulated and administered
 by professor permission. To Peer TA an introductory
 course, an application and a peer TA training
 class is required. For other courses, prior 
experience with the class and permission of
 acting instructor is necessary for enrollment.
·	For other classes of interest that are
 not listed, please contact an advisor about 
the possibility of petitioning. The course will 
need to be at the 300 to 400 level and have
 a biological basis to be considered.

Code:

GENERAL BIOLOGY
BACHELOR OF SCIENCE IN BIOLOGY 

The General Biology option emphasizes 
breadth of training in Biology. As the 
most flexible among the options leading 
to a Science degree in Biology, students 
have input in the composition of their 
degree by choosing from the wide range
 of electives available through several 
different departments. 

Each option is complemented by the College
 of Arts and Sciences general educational
 requirements such as English Composition,
 Writing, Foreign Language, QSR, VLPA, and I&S.

Admission Requirements: The minimum 
admission requirements are noted below,
 but admission is non-competitive and all 
students who meet the stated requirements
 are admitted to the major. To declare the
 major, students need to meet with a
 Biology Adviser to complete a change of 
major form. 

Departmental Honors in Biology
Departmental honors allow students 
seeking extra challenges and opportunities 
to do so while completing a Biology Degree. 
Students may request an invitation to
 departmental honors in Biology once they 
complete their introductory biology sequence, 
and have declared a Biology Major. The 
request must be submitted 3 quarters prior to 
graduation, requests made later will not be reviewed.

General Requirements for completing 
Departmental Honors include:
·	UW Cumulative GPA: 3.3
·	Major Cumulative GPA:  3.4
·	Complete two 400 level BIOL courses 
for Ad Hoc credit. (Requires signed agreement 
form)
·	Complete two approved Senior level 
BIOL Seminars
·	Complete  9 credits of Undergraduate 
Research (Research approval form required)
·	Complete a research paper based on 
approved research credits
·	Present your research work at the 
Undergraduate Research Symposium or other
 approved venue.

See an Adviser for more details.
Option Requirements. A minimum of 90 credits 
to be distributed as follows:
I.		SUPPORTING COURSES IN CHEMISTRY, 
PHYSICS, AND MATHEMATICS:
Chemistry (choose one option)	
(15-26 credits)					
1.	CHEM 120, 220*, 221 (5,5,5)				
2.	CHEM 142, 152* (5,5) or 144, 154 and
 CHEM 223, 224* (4,4)  (O Chem labs are not 
required for major)				
3.	CHEM 142, 152*, 162^ (5,5,5) or 144, 154*,
 164^ and CHEM 237, 238, 239 (4,4,3)  (O Chem 
labs are not required for major)				
	*CHEM 220 or CHEM 152 is the prerequisite 
for BIOL 200              ^CHEM 162 or164 are the
 prerequisite for CHEM 237				
Physics (choose one option):	(8-10 credits)					
1.	PHYS	114, 115	(4,4)		Algebra based 
physics (labs are not required for the major)
2.	PHYS	121, 122	(5,5)		Analysis based
 physics
Mathematics (choose one option):	(10 credits)					
1.	MATH	124, 125	(5,5)		Calculus with 
Analytic Geometry
2.	QSCI	291, 292	(5,5)		Calculus for 
Biologists (May not be used for the Bio Chem 440 
Series)
3.	QSCI 381 or STAT 311 and QSCI 482 (5,5)
	Quantitative Statistical  Reasoning			
	A third quarter of calculus or a course in 
Probability and Statistics is strongly recommended.				


II.		INTRODUCTORY BIOLOGY:	
(15 credits)
BIOL 180, 200*, 220 (5,5,5)                                                  
*CHEM 220,152 or 154 is a prerequisite for 
BIOL 200

A grade of 1.7 in Biology 180 will be required 
to progress to 200 and a grade 2.0 in 200 to progress into 220.



III.		GENETICS REQUIREMENT:	
(3-5 credits)
	Select one of the following courses:				
1.	GENOME	361	(3)		Fundamentals
 of Genetics and Genomics 
2.	GENOME	371	(5)		Introductory 
Genetics
3.	BIOL/FISH	340	(5)		Genetics and 
Molecular Ecology


IV.	LAB, RESIDENCY AND 400 LEVEL BIOLOGY
 REQUIREMENTS: 
These requirements may overlap with other 
requirements such as breath, Natural History/
biodiversity, or advanced electives.

·	A minimum of 15 credits must be 400 level
 through the Department of BIOLOGY. Courses 
such as Biochemistry (BIOC) and Microbiology 
(MICROM) are from other departments and will
 not count toward this requirement.
·	A minimum of 15 credits of 300 and 400
 level Advanced BIOL Electives must be taken
 in residency at the University of Washington-
Seattle campus. This requirement can be shared 
with the departmental 400 level requirement above.
·	At least two laboratory courses, chosen 
from any course marked with an “L”, must be 
taken. A minimum of four credits of 499 (please 
read end note about approval process) can 
substitute for one laboratory.

V.		TAXONOMIC BREADTH REQUIREMENT:
	
Biologists often concentrate on one level of 
biological organization, but it is important to
 know about broader biological topics that 
can be studied. To broaden your perspective,
 you are required to take at least one 
biologically based course that provides
 taxonomic breadth outside the Animalia 
Kingdom; you must take one asterisked 
(*) course (from any of the lists on this
 handout) which can be shared with either
 your Natural History/Biodiversity requirement 
or an advanced elective.  

VI.		NATURAL HISTORY/BIODIVERSITY 
	Natural History is the study of the
 characteristics, life cycles, and biological
 background of some taxonomic group.
 Biodiversity deals with a whole suite of 
organisms that inhabit a particular environment.
*These classes are often field oriented, in
 which students both observe or analyze 
both the organisms and their interactions in
 the natural habitats.
	
Select one course:	(3 credits minimum)
	BIOL	280	(4)		The History of
 Life
	BIOL/FISH	311L	(3/5)		Biology 
of Fishes
	BIOL	317L	(5)		Plant Identification 
and Classification*
	BIOL	325	(3)		Tree of Life*
	BIOL	331	(3)		Landscape Plant
 Recognition*
	BIOL 	430L	(5)		Marine Zoology 
(FHL)
	BIOL 	432L	(5)		Marine Invertebrate
 Zoology (FHL)
	BIOL	433L	(5)		Marine Ecology
	BIOL	434L	(5)		Invertebrate Zoology
	BIOL 	440L	(5)		General Mycology*
	BIOL	441L	(5)		Morphology and 
Anatomy of Land Plants*
	BIOL 	442L	(5)		Mushrooms and 
Related Fungi*
	BIOL 	443L	(5)		Evolution of Mammals
 and Their Ancestors
	BIOL 	444L	(5)		Natural History of
 Birds
	BIOL 	445L	(5)		Marine Botany* 
(FHL)
	BIOL 	446L	(5)		Biology of Algae*
	BIOL/ESS	450/452L	(5)		Vertebrate
 Paleontology
	BIOL/ESS	451L	(5)		Invertebrate
 Paleontology
	BIOL 	452L	(5)		Vertebrate Zoology
	BIOL 	453L	(5)		Comparative Vertebrate 
Anatomy
	BIOL 	454/455L	(3/3L)		Entomology
/Entomology Lab
	BIOL 	456L	(5)		Vegetation of Western 
Washington*
	ESRM 	435/436L	(3/2L)		
Forest Entomology/Forest Entomology Lab
	ESRM 	452L	(3)		Field Ornithology
	ESRM	456	(3)		Biology and Conservation
 of Birds
	FISH 	450L	(3/5L)		Salmonoid
 Behavior and Life History
	FISH 	475L	(5)		Marine Mammalogy


VII.	ADVANCED BIOLOGY ELECTIVES:	
(34 credits)
·	You are required to have a minimum of
 34 credits from the selection below.
·	Within these 34 credits students must 
select one course from three of the five areas:

1. Biology and Society Course Electives:					
	BIOL	305	(3)		Science 
Communication: Video Storytelling in Biology
	BIOL	390	(1)		Undergraduate
 Internship Seminar
	BIOL	399	(3-5)		Biology 
Internship Program
	BIOL/PSYCH	#458	(4)		
Behavioral Genetics 
	BIOL	491	(1-5)		Special Topics 
for Biology Teachers
	BIOL	492	(2)		The Teaching
 of Biology
	BIOL	496	(1-5)		Peer TAs in 
Biology1
	ANTH	458	(5)		Ethnobiology:
 Plants, Animals, People*
	GENOME	454	(4)		Origin
 of Genetics 
	GENOME	475	(3)		Debates
 in Genetics
	BH	#402	(5)		Ethical Theory 
	BH	404	(5)		Metaethical 
Theory 
	BH	411	(3)		Bioethics
	BH	417	(3)		Disease in
 History
	PHIL	481	(5)		Philosophy of Biology
	PSYCH/GWSS	357	(5)		
Psychobiology of Women (Registration is 
restricted through Psych)
	PSYCH	416	(5)		Animal
 Communication

      Continued on next page…
VII.	ADVANCED BIOLOGY ELECTIVES,
 continued:

2. Ecology and Evolution/Systematics 
Course Electives: 					
	BIOL	315	(3)		Biological 
Impacts of Climate Change
	BIOL	354	(3)		Foundations in
 Evolution and Systematics
	BIOL	356L	(3)		Foundations in 
Ecology
	BIOL/PSYCH	#408	(4)		
Mechanisms of Animal Behavior 
	BIOL/PSYCH	409	(5)		
Sociobiology
	BIOL/GENOME	414	(5)		
Molecular Evolution
	BIOL	415	(3)		Evolution
 and Development
	BIOL	423	(3)		Marine 
Ecological Processes
	BIOL/ESRM	424L/478	(5)		
Plant Eco-Physiology*
	BIOL	433L	(5)		Marine 
Ecology
	BIOL	447L	(5)		Greening 
the Earth*
	BIOL	448	(3)		Marine Algal
 Ecology*
	BIOL	449	(3)		Applied 
Phylogenetics
	BIOL	469	(3)		Evolution and
 Medicine
	BIOL	471L	(5)		Plant Ecology*
	BIOL	472L	(5)		Community
 Ecology
	BIOL/FISH	473/474L	(3/2)		
Limnology & Lab
	BIOL	476L	(5)		Conservation
 Biology
	BIOL/FISH/ENVIR	478	(3-9)		Topics
 in Sustainable Fisheries 
	BIOL	480L	(4)		Field Ecology
	BIOL	481L	(5)		Experimental 
Ecology and Evolution
	BIOL	482L	(2-5)		Advanced
 Experimental Ecology and Evolution
	BIOL	483	(1-3)		Sr. Seminar in 
Paleobiology
	BIOL	484	(1-3)		Sr. Seminar in 
Evolution & Systematics
	BIOL	486	(1-3)		Sr. Seminar in
 Ecology
	BIOL	487	(1-3)		Sr. Seminar in 
Conservation Biology
	BIOL	489	(1-3)		Sr. Seminar in 
Plant Biology
	ESRM	400	(3)		Natural Resource
 Conflict Management
	ESRM	409	(5)		Soil Ecology
	ESRM	450	(5)		Wildlife Ecology
 and Conservation
	ESRM	458	(5)		Mgmnt of Endangered,
 Threatened, and Sensitive Species
	ESRM	470	(5)		Natural Resource
 Policy and Planning
	ESS	450	(3)		Paleobiology
	FISH	444L	(5)		Conservation
 Genetics
	GENOME	453	(3)		Genetics
 of the Evolutionary Process


3. Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental 
Biology Course Electives:					
	BIOL	302L	(4)		Laboratory 
Techniques in Cell and Molecular
	BIOL	355	(3)		Foundations
 in Molecular Cell Biology
	BIOL	380	(3)		Biomedical 
Advances and Society
	BIOL	400L	(4)		Experiments in
 Cellular Biology
	BIOL	401	(3)		Advanced Cell 
Biology
	BIOL	405	(3)		Cell and Molecular
 Biology of Human Disease
	BIOL	411	(4)		Developmental 
Biology
	BIOL	412L	(4)		Developmental 
Biology Lab
	BIOL	413L	(4)		Molecular Development
 of Genetics
	BIOL/GENOME	414	(5)		Molecular 
Evolution
	BIOL	416	(3)		Molecular Genetics
 of Plant Development*
	BIOL	457	(3)		Chemical 
Communication
	BIOL	459	(3)		Developmental 
Neurobiology
	BIOL	485	(1-3)		Sr. Seminar in
 Molecular, Cellular & Dev. Biol.
	BIOC	405	(3)		Introduction to
 Biochemistry
	BIOC	406	(3)		Introduction to 
Biochemistry

      Continued on next page…

VII.	ADVANCED BIOLOGY ELECTIVES, 
continued:
	BIOC	426L	(4)		Basic Techniques 
in Biochemistry 
	BIOC	440	(4)		Biochemistry
	BIOC	441	(4)		Biochemistry
	BIOC	442	(4)		Biochemistry
	GENOME	372	(5)		Gene 
Structure and Function
	GENOME	453	(3)		Genetics 
of the Evolutionary Process
	GENOME	454	(4)		Origin of 
Genetics
	GENOME	465	(4)		Advanced
 Human Genetics
	GENOME	466	(3)		Cancer Genetics
	GENOME	490	(2)		Genetics 
Undergraduate Seminar
	IMMUN	441	(4)		Introduction 
to Immunology (formerly MICROM)
	MICROM	301/302L	(3)		General 
Microbiology*/ General Microbiology Lab
	MICROM	402L	(3)		Fundamentals
 of General Microbiology Lab
	MICROM	410	(3)		Fundamentals
 of Microbiology I
	MICROM	412	(3)		Fundamentals
 of General Microbiology III
	MICROM	435	(3)		Microbial 
Ecology 
	MICROM	442	(3)		Medical 
Bacteriology
	MICROM	445	(3)		Medical Virology
	MICROM	450	(3)		Molecular
 Biology of Viruses


4. Physiology Course Electives–.					
	BIOL	300	(4)		Introduction to 
Neuroscience
	BIOL	350	(3)		Foundations in
 Physiology
	BIOL 	360	(3)		Cellular Anatomy
	BIOL	403L	(5)		Physiological 
Mechanisms of Histology
	BIOL	404	(3)		Animal Physiology:
 Cellular Aspects
	BIOL	408	(4)		Mechanisms of
 Animal Behavior
	BIOL	418	(3)		Circadian Rhythms
	BIOL	422	(3)		Physiology of Plant
 Behavior*
	BIOL/ESRM	424/478L	(5)		Plant 
Eco-Physiology*
	BIOL	425	(3)		Adv. Plant Physiology
 and Development*
	BIOL	426L	(3)		Adv. Plant Physiology
 and Development Lab*
	BIOL 	427	(4)		Biomechanics
	BIOL	428	(3)		Environmental 
Sensory
 Processes and Mechanics
	BIOL 	459	(3)		Developmental 
Neurobiology
	BIOL	460	(3)		Mammalian 
Physiology
	BIOL 	461	(3)		Neurobiology
	BIOL 	462	(3)		Advanced Animal 
Physiology
	BIOL	463L	(3)		Advanced Animal 
Physiology Lab
	BIOL 	465	(3)		Comparative 
Endocrinology
	BIOL	466	(3)		Pathobiology of 
Emerging Diseases
	BIOL 	468	(3)		Medical Physiology
	BIOL	488	(1-3)		Sr. Seminar in 
Physiology
	B STR	301	(4)		General Anatomy 
(restricted registration)
	FISH	324	(3/5L)		Aquatic 
Animal Physiology and Reproduction 
	FISH	441	(3/5L)		Environmental
 Physiology
	NUTR	300	(3)		Introduction to 
Nutrition
	NUTR/EPI	#405	(3)		Physical 
Activity in Health and Disease 
	PSYCH	421	(5)		Neural Basis
 of Behavior


5. Natural History/Biodiversity
Any additional course(s) from the Natural 
History/Biodiversity list after the initial 
requirement is completed.


    


Notes:  
·	Many of the elective courses have 
pre-requisite courses; in planning your 
course selection, be sure and map out 
corresponding schedules that include the 
necessary pre-requisites!
·	Undergraduate Research:  Ten credits
 is the maximum number of Undergraduate
 Research credits that can be used as
 Upper Division Electives. Any 499 credit 
may be approved by petition; see a Biology
 Adviser for a Research Approval Form. 
Four of these 10 credits may be used to 
fulfill 1 of the 2 lab requirements provided a
 minimum of 4 credits are completed on the 
same project.
·	Courses listed in more than one 
category can only count for one
 requirement. 
·	A lab taken for the Natural History
 Biodiversity requirement may count for
 one of the two required labs but the 
credits do not count as Advanced Biology
 Electives unless the lab credits are a 
separate class.
·	* Indicates course with non-animal 
emphasis to meet taxonomic breadth 
requirement of the General Biology Option.
·	(FHL) = indicates course taught at 
Friday Harbor Labs.
·	1 - This class is regulated and 
administered by professor permission. 
To Peer TA an introductory course, an
 application and a peer TA training class is
 required. For other courses, prior experience 
with the class and permission of acting 
instructor is necessary for enrollment.

·	For other classes of interest that are 
not listed, please contact an advisor about 
the possibility of petitioning. The course 
will need to be at the 300 to 400 level and 
have a biological basis to be considered.

​

Some Terms You might wanna get aquanted with in the Science Field


Physicians

Physicians undergo a rigorous and lengthy
amount of education before they are licensed.
Specialists (such as gastroenterologists) require
even more schooling and training than, for instance,
family practitioners. When they complete their
education, all physicians must apply for a medical
license before they are allowed, by law, to practice
medicine.

In the U.S., all physicians must complete a
four-year undergraduate degree, either a
Bachelor of Science (BS) or a Bachelor of Arts
(BA). Their undergraduate education is
typically geared toward the sciences
(biology, chemistry, physiology) and may be
considered a 'pre-med' program.

After obtaining a four-year degree, students
continue on to medical school and start
another four years of classes. When they
graduate, students receive a degree
of either medical doctor (MD) or doctor
of osteopathic medicine (DO). Graduates
have earned the title of "doctor," but are
not permitted to practice medicine on their own.

Medical Student: Student in a graduate-level medical program
Resident: Medical school graduate undergoing on-the-job training
Intern: First-year resident, usually not licensed to practice medicine
Fellow: Residency graduate undergoing continued specialty training
Physician or doctor: Person with medical degree; may or may not yet be licensed to practice medicine


A little bit of both

Having completed eight years of higher
education, physicians that enter a residency
program are known as residents. Resident
programs range from three to seven years
in length, depending on the chosen specialty.
Occasionally, residents will be called interns
during their first year of residency, though this
is no longer common. After the completion of
their residency program, a physician may decide
to enter into practice. Upon obtaining a medical
license, physicians may enter a field such as
general surgery or family practice. At this time,
a physician may also choose to continue their
training for a specialty, such as gastroenterology
or rheumatology, which will begin during his or
her fellowship. Board certification (a medical
"stamp of approval") happens after the completion
of a residency. Certification is usually required
before moving on to subspecialty training.




Fellows


To become trained for a specialty, physicians
enter a fellowship for one to three years